Urinary stone disease: Advancing knowledge, patient care, and population health

Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Volumn 11, Issue 7, 2016, Pages 1305-1312

  Scales, Charles D ^a   Tasian, Gregory E ^b   Schwaderer, Andrew L ^c   Goldfarb, David S ^d   Star, Robert A ^e   Kirkali, Ziya ^e  

^a DUKE CLINICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^c NATIONWIDE CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^d NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DIABETES AND DIGESTIVE AND KIDNEY DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular Diseases; Disease Management; Health Expenditures; Humans; Kidney stones; Morbidity; National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (U.S.); Patient Care; Public Health; Secondary Prevention

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BONE DENSITY; DNA SEQUENCE; DYSBIOSIS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FLUID INTAKE; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HUMAN; MINIMALLY INVASIVE PROCEDURE; NONHUMAN; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT-REPORTED OUTCOME; PUBLIC HEALTH; RECURRENCE RISK; RISK FACTOR; URETER STENT; UROLITHIASIS; DIET; POPULATION HEALTH; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION;

DIET; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMANS; POPULATION HEALTH; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; URINARY CALCULI;

EID: 84990821623     PISSN: 15559041     EISSN: 1555905X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2215/CJN.13251215     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Scales CD Jr., Smith AC, Hanley JM, Saigal CS; Urologic Diseases in America Project: Prevalence of kidney stones in the United States. Eur Urol 62: 160-165, 2012
2. Tasian GE, Ross ME, Song L, Sas DJ, Keren R, Denburg MR, Chu DI, Copelovitch L, Saigal CS, Furth SL: Annual incidence of nephrolithiasis among children and adults in South Carolina from 1997 to 2012 [published online ahead of print January 14, 2016]. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol
3. Novak TE, Lakshmanan Y, Trock BJ, Gearhart JP, Matlaga BR: Sex prevalence of pediatric kidney stone disease in the United States:An epidemiologic investigation. Urology 74: 104-107, 2009
4. Clayton DB, Pope JC: The increasing pediatric stone disease problem. Ther Adv Urol 3: 3-12, 2011
5. Denburg MR, Leonard MB, Haynes K, Tuchman S, Tasian G, Shults J, Copelovitch L: Risk of fracture in urolithiasis:A population-based cohort study using the health improvement network. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 2133-2140, 2014
6. Asplin JR, Bauer KA, Kinder J, Müller G, Coe BJ, Parks JH, Coe FL: Bone mineral density and urine calcium excretion among subjects with and without nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 63: 662-669, 2003
7. Melton LJ 3rd, Crowson CS, Khosla S, Wilson DM, O’Fallon WM:Fracture risk among patients with urolithiasis: A populationbased cohort study. Kidney Int 53: 459-464, 1998
8. Ferraro PM, Taylor EN, Eisner BH, Gambaro G, Rimm EB, Mukamal KJ, Curhan GC: History of kidney stones and the risk of coronary heart disease. JAMA 310: 408-415, 2013
9. Kusumi K, Smith S, Barr-Beare E, Saxena V, Schober MS, Moore-Clingenpeel M, Schwaderer AL: Pediatric origins of nephrolithiasis-associated atherosclerosis. J Pediatr 167: 1074-1080.e2, 2015
10. Schwaderer AL, Cronin R, Mahan JD, Bates CM: Low bone density in children with hypercalciuria and/or nephrolithiasis. Pediatr Nephrol 23: 2209-2214, 2008
11. Saucier NA, Sinha MK, Liang KV, Krambeck AE, Weaver AL, Bergstralh EJ, Li X, Rule AD, Lieske JC: Risk factors for CKD in persons with kidney stones: A case-control study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Am J Kidney Dis 55: 61-68, 2010
12. Cappuccio FP, Strazzullo P, Mancini M: Kidney stones and hypertension: Population based study of an independent clinical association. BMJ 300: 1234-1236, 1990
13. Rule AD, Bergstralh EJ, Melton LJ 3rd, Li X, Weaver AL, Lieske JC: Kidney stones and the risk for chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 804-811, 2009
14. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC: Diabetes mellitus and the risk of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 68: 1230-1235, 2005
15. Litwin MS, Saigal CS: Table 14-47: Economic impact of urologic disease. In: Urologic Diseases in America. NIH Publication 12-7865. Washington, DC, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2012, p 486
16. Scales CD Jr., Saigal CS, Hanley JM, Dick AW, Setodji CM, Litwin MS; NIDDKUrologic Diseases in America Project: The impact of unplanned postprocedure visits in the management of patients with urinary stones. Surgery 155: 769-775, 2014
17. Scales CD Jr., Lin L, Saigal CS, Bennett CJ, Ponce NA, Mangione CM, Litwin MS; NIDDK Urologic Diseases in America Project: Emergency department revisits for patients with kidney stones in California. Acad Emerg Med 22: 468-474, 2015
18. Saigal CS, Joyce G, Timilsina AR; Urologic Diseases in America Project: Direct and indirect costs of nephrolithiasis in an employed population: Opportunity for disease management? Kidney Int 68: 1808-1814, 2005
19. Edvardsson VO, Goldfarb DS, Lieske JC, Beara-Lasic L, Anglani F, Milliner DS, Palsson R: Hereditary causes of kidney stones and chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 28: 1923-1942, 2013
20. Halbritter J, Baum M, Hynes AM, Rice SJ, Thwaites DT, Gucev ZS, Fisher B, Spaneas L, Porath JD, Braun DA, Wassner AJ, Nelson CP, Tasic V, Sayer JA, Hildebrandt F: Fourteen monogenic genes account for 15% of nephrolithiasis/nephrocalcinosis. J AmSoc Nephrol 26: 543-551, 2015
21. Goldfarb DS, Fischer ME, Keich Y, Goldberg J: A twin study of genetic and dietary influences on nephrolithiasis: A report from the Vietnam Era Twin (VET) Registry. Kidney Int 67: 1053-1061, 2005
22. Spivacow FR, Negri AL, del Valle EE, Calviño I, Fradinger E, Zanchetta JR: Metabolic risk factors in childrenwith kidney stone disease. Pediatr Nephrol 23: 1129-1133, 2008
23. Usman KD, Golan S, Abdin T, Livne PM, Pode D, Duvdevani M, Lifshitz D: Urinary stone composition in Israel: Current status and variation with age and sex-a bicenter study. J Endourol 27: 1539-1542, 2013
24. Scales CD Jr., Curtis LH, Norris RD, Springhart WP, Sur RL, Schulman KA, Preminger GM: Changing gender prevalence of stone disease. J Urol 177: 979-982, 2007
25. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC: Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA 293: 455-462, 2005
26. Lieske JC, Rule AD, Krambeck AE, Williams JC, Bergstralh EJ, Mehta RA, Moyer TP: Stone composition as a function of age and sex. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 2141-2146, 2014
27. Huang WY, Chen YF, Chen SC, Lee YJ, Lan CF, Huang KH:Pediatric urolithiasis in Taiwan: A nationwide study, 1997-2006. Urology 79: 1355-1359, 2012
28. Tavichakorntrakool R, Prasongwattana V, Sungkeeree S, Saisud P, Sribenjalux P, Pimratana C, Bovornpadungkitti S, Sriboonlue P, Thongboonkerd V: Extensive characterizations of bacteria isolated from catheterized urine and stone matrices in patients with nephrolithiasis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27: 4125-4130, 2012
29. Wang Z, Klipfell E, Bennett BJ, Koeth R, Levison BS, Dugar B, Feldstein AE, Britt EB, Fu X, Chung YM, Wu Y, Schauer P, Smith JD, Allayee H, Tang WH, DiDonato JA, Lusis AJ, Hazen SL: Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature 472: 57-63, 2011
30. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI: An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444: 1027-1031, 2006
31. Hoppe B, Beck B, Gatter N, von Unruh G, Tischer A, Hesse A, Laube N, Kaul P, Sidhu H: Oxalobacter formigenes: A potential tool for the treatment of primary hyperoxaluria type 1. Kidney Int 70: 1305-1311, 2006
32. Kaufman DW, Kelly JP, Curhan GC, Anderson TE, Dretler SP, Preminger GM, Cave DR: Oxalobacter formigenes may reduce the risk of calcium oxalate kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 19: 1197-1203, 2008
33. Chauhan V, Eskin B, Allegra JR, Cochrane DG: Effect of season, age, and gender on renal colic incidence. Am J Emerg Med 22: 560-563, 2004
34. Tasian GE, Pulido JE, Gasparrini A, Saigal CS, Horton BP, Landis JR, Madison R, Keren R; Urologic Diseases in America Project:Daily mean temperature and clinical kidney stone presentation in five U.S. metropolitan areas: A time-series analysis. Environ Health Perspect 122: 1081-1087, 2014
35. Taylor EN, Hoofnagle AN, Curhan GC: Calcium and phosphorus regulatory hormones and risk of incident symptomatic kidney stones. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 667-675, 2015
36. Fakheri RJ, Goldfarb DS: Ambient temperature as a contributor to kidney stone formation: Implications of global warming. Kidney Int 79: 1178-1185, 2011
37. Goldfarb DS, Hirsch J: Hypothesis:Urbanization and exposure to urban heat islands contribute to increasing prevalence of kidney stones. Med Hypotheses 85: 953-957, 2015
38. Mass AY, Goldfarb DS, Shah O: Taxi cab syndrome: A review of the extensive genitourinary pathology experienced by taxi cab drivers and what we can do to help. Rev Urol 16: 99-104, 2014
39. Blaschko SD, Chi T, Miller J, Flechner L, Fakra S, Kapahi P, Kahn A, Stoller ML: Strontium substitution for calcium in lithogenesis. J Urol 189: 735-739, 2013
40. Tang J, McFann K, Chonchol M: Dietary zinc intake and kidney stone formation: Evaluation of NHANES III. Am J Nephrol 36: 549-553, 2012
41. Councell TB, Duckenfield KU, Landa ER, Callender E: Tire-wear particles as a source of zinc to the environment. Environ Sci Technol 38: 4206-4214, 2004
42. Sato K, Kusaka Y, Zhang Q, Li B, Okada K, Nakakuki K, Muraoka R: Citrate uptake by isolated rat renal brush border membrane vesicles in cadmium-intoxicated rats. Ind Health 35: 388-393, 1997
43. Järup L, Elinder CG: Incidence of renal stones among cadmium exposed battery workers. Br J Ind Med 50: 598-602, 1993
44. Borghi L, Meschi T, Amato F, Briganti A, Novarini A, Giannini A:Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: A 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol 155: 839-843, 1996
45. Lotan Y, Buendia Jiménez I, Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Daudon M, Molinier L, Tack I, Nuijten MJ: Increased water intake as a prevention strategy for recurrent urolithiasis: Major impact of compliance on cost-effectiveness. J Urol 189: 935-939, 2013
46. Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ: A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med 328: 833-838, 1993
47. Frank M, De Vries A: Prevention of urolithiasis. Education to adequate fluid intake in a newtown situated in the Judean Desert Mountains. Arch Environ Health 13: 625-630, 1966
48. Sierakowski R, Finlayson B, Landes R: Stone incidence as related to water hardness in different geographical regions of the United States. Urol Res 7: 157-160, 1979
49. Borghi L, Schianchi T, Meschi T, Guerra A, Allegri F, Maggiore U, Novarini A: Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 346: 77-84, 2002
50. Taylor EN, Curhan GC: Fructose consumption and the risk of kidney stones. Kidney Int 73: 207-212, 2008
51. Ferraro PM, Curhan GC, Gambaro G, Taylor EN: Total, dietary, and supplemental vitamin C intake and risk of incident kidney stones [published online ahead of print October 10, 2015]. Am J Kidney Dis
52. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC: Dietary factors and the risk of incident kidney stones in men: New insights after 14 years of follow-up. J Am Soc Nephrol 15: 3225-3232, 2004
53. Kant AK, Graubard BI: Contributors of water intake in US children and adolescents: Associations with dietary and meal characteristics-National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006. Am J Clin Nutr 92: 887-896, 2010
54. Clark MA, Fox MK: Nutritional quality of the diets of US public school children and the role of the school meal programs. J Am Diet Assoc 109[Suppl]: S44-S56, 2009
55. Moore LL, Singer MR, Qureshi MM, Bradlee ML, Daniels SR: Food group intake and micronutrient adequacy in adolescent girls. Nutrients 4: 1692-1708, 2012
56. Vos MB, Kimmons JE, Gillespie C, Welsh J, Blanck HM: Dietary fructose consumption among US children and adults: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Medscape J Med 10: 160, 2008
57. Kim SS, Luan X, Canning DA, Landis JR, Keren R: Association between body mass index and urolithiasis in children. J Urol 186 [Suppl]: 1734-1739, 2011
58. Fwu CW, Eggers PW, Kimmel PL, Kusek JW, Kirkali Z: Emergency department visits, use of imaging, and drugs for urolithiasis have increased in the United States. Kidney Int 83: 479-486, 2013
59. Hyams ES, Korley FK, Pham JC, Matlaga BR: Trends in imaging use during the emergency department evaluation of flank pain. J Urol 186: 2270-2274, 2011
60. Preminger GM, Tiselius HG, Assimos DG, Alken P, Buck C, Gallucci M, Knoll T, Lingeman JE, Nakada SY, Pearle MS, Sarica K, Türk C, Wolf JS Jr.; EAU/AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel: 2007 guideline for the management of ureteral calculi. J Urol 178: 2418-2434, 2007
61. Passerotti C, Chow JS, Silva A, Schoettler CL, Rosoklija I, Perez-Rossello J, Cendron M, Cilento BG, Lee RS, Nelson CP, Estrada CR, Bauer SB, Borer JG, Diamond DA, Retik AB, Nguyen HT: Ultrasound versus computerized tomography for evaluating urolithiasis. J Urol 182[Suppl]: 1829-1834, 2009
62. Fulgham PF, Assimos DG, Pearle MS, Preminger GM: Clinical effectiveness protocols for imaging in the management of ureteral calculous disease: AUA technology assessment. J Urol 189: 1203-1213, 2013
63. Smith-Bindman R, Aubin C, Bailitz J, Bengiamin RN, Camargo CA Jr., Corbo J, Dean AJ, Goldstein RB, Griffey RT, Jay GD, Kang TL, Kriesel DR, Ma OJ, Mallin M, Manson W, Melnikow J, Miglioretti DL, Miller SK, Mills LD, Miner JR, Moghadassi M, Noble VE, Press GM, Stoller ML, Valencia VE, Wang J, Wang RC, Cummings SR: Ultrasonography versus computed tomography for suspected nephrolithiasis. N Engl J Med 371: 1100-1110, 2014
64. Moore CL, Bomann S, Daniels B, Luty S, Molinaro A, Singh D, Gross CP: Derivation and validation of a clinical prediction rule for uncomplicated ureteral stone-the STONE score:Retrospective and prospective observational cohort studies. BMJ 348: g2191, 2014
65. Harper JD, Dunmire B, Wang YN, Simon JC, Liggitt D, Paun M, Cunitz BW, Starr F, Bailey MR, Penniston KL, Lee FC, Hsi RS, Sorensen MD: Preclinical safety and effectiveness studies of ultrasonic propulsion of kidney stones. Urology 84: 484-489, 2014
66. Andrabi Y, Pianykh O, Agrawal M, Kambadakone A, Blake MA, Sahani DV: Radiation dose consideration in kidney stone CT examinations: Integration of iterative reconstruction algorithms with routine clinical practice. AJR Am J Roentgenol 204: 1055-1063, 2015
67. Campschroer T, Zhu Y, Duijvesz D, Grobbee DE, Lock MT: Alpha-blockers as medical expulsive therapy for ureteral stones. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD008509, 2014
68. Tasian GE, Cost NG, Granberg CF, Pulido JE, Rivera M, Schwen Z, Schulte M, Fox JA: Tamsulosin and spontaneous passage of ureteral stones in children: A multi-institutional cohort study. J Urol 192: 506-511, 2014
69. Pickard R, Starr K, MacLennan G, Lam T, Thomas R, Burr J, McPherson G, McDonald A, Anson K, N’Dow J, Burgess N, Clark T, Kilonzo M, Gillies K, Shearer K, Boachie C, Cameron S, Norrie J, McClinton S: Medical expulsive therapy in adults with ureteric colic: A multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 386: 341-349, 2015
70. Oberlin DT, Flum AS, Bachrach L, Matulewicz RS, Flury SC: Contemporary surgical trends in the management of upper tract calculi. J Urol 193: 880-884, 2015
71. Scales CD Jr., Krupski TL, Curtis LH, Matlaga B, Lotan Y, Pearle MS, Saigal C, Preminger GM; Urologic Diseases in America Project: Practice variation in the surgical management of urinary lithiasis. J Urol 186: 146-150, 2011
72. Denburg MR, Jemielita TO, Tasian GE, Haynes K, Mucksavage P, Shults J, Copelovitch L: Assessing the risk of incident hypertension and chronic kidney disease after exposure to shockwave lithotripsy and ureteroscopy [published online ahead of print October 28, 2015]. Kidney Int
73. Scales CDJr., Lai JC, Dick AW, Hanley JM, vanMeijgaard J, Setodji CM, Saigal CS; Urologic Diseases inAmerica Project: Comparative effectiveness of shockwave lithotripsy and ureteroscopy for treating patients with kidney stones. JAMA Surg 149: 648-653, 2014
74. Matlaga BR; American Board of Urology: Contemporary surgical management of upper urinary tract calculi. J Urol 181: 2152-2156, 2009
75. Matlaga BR, Meckley LM, Kim M, Byrne TW: Management patterns of medicare patients undergoing treatment for upper urinary tract calculi. J Endourol 28: 723-728, 2014
76. Joshi HB, Stainthorpe A, MacDonagh RP, Keeley FX Jr., Timoney AG, Barry MJ: Indwelling ureteral stents: Evaluation of symptoms, quality of life and utility. J Urol 169: 1065-1069, 2003
77. Ljunghall S: Incidence of upper urinary tract stones. Miner Electrolyte Metab 13: 220-227, 1987
78. Fink HA, Akornor JW, Garimella PS, MacDonald R, Cutting A, Rutks IR, Monga M, Wilt TJ: Diet, fluid, or supplements for secondary prevention of nephrolithiasis: Asystematic reviewand meta-analysis of randomized trials. Eur Urol 56: 72-80, 2009
79. Fink HA, Wilt TJ, Eidman KE, Garimella PS, MacDonald R, Rutks IR, Brasure M, Kane RL, Ouellette J, Monga M: Medical management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: A systematic reviewfor an American College of Physicians Clinical Guideline. Ann Intern Med 158: 535-543, 2013
80. Pearle MS, Goldfarb DS, Assimos DG, Curhan G, Denu-Ciocca CJ, Matlaga BR, Monga M, Penniston KL, Preminger GM, Turk TM, White JR; American Urological Assocation: Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline. J Urol 192: 316-324, 2014
81. Skolarikos A, Straub M, Knoll T, Sarica K, Seitz C, Petřík A, Türk C:Metabolic evaluation and recurrence prevention for urinary stone patients: EAU guidelines. Eur Urol 67: 750-763, 2015
82. Qaseem A, Dallas P, Forciea MA, Starkey M, Denberg TD; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians: Dietary and pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 161: 659-667, 2014
83. Ziemba JB, Matlaga BR: Guideline of guidelines: Kidney stones. BJU Int 116: 184-189, 2015
84. Sarica K, Inal Y, Erturhan S, Yağci F: The effect of calcium channel blockers on stone regrowth and recurrence after shock wave lithotripsy. Urol Res 34: 184-189, 2006
85. Cheungpasitporn W, Rossetti S, Friend K, Erickson SB, Lieske JC: Treatment effect, adherence, and safety of high fluid intake for the prevention of incident and recurrent kidney stones: A systematic review and meta-analysis [published online ahead of print May 29, 2015]. J Nephrol
86. Ferraro PM, Taylor EN, Gambaro G, Curhan GC: Soda and other beverages and the risk of kidney stones. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 8: 1389-1395, 2013
87. Prezioso D, Strazzullo P, Lotti T, Bianchi G, Borghi L, Caione P, Carini M, Caudarella R, Gambaro G, Gelosa M, Guttilla A, Illiano E, Martino M, Meschi T, Messa P, Miano R, Napodano G, Nouvenne A, Rendina D, Rocco F, Rosa M, Sanseverino R, Salerno A, Spatafora S, Tasca A, Ticinesi A, Travaglini F, Trinchieri A, Vespasiani G, Zattoni F; CLUWorking Group: Dietary treatment of urinary risk factors for renal stone formation. A review of CLUWorking Group. Arch Ital Urol Androl 87: 105-120, 2015
88. Meschi T, Maggiore U, Fiaccadori E, Schianchi T, Bosi S, Adorni G, Ridolo E, Guerra A, Allegri F, Novarini A, Borghi L: The effect of fruits and vegetables on urinary stone risk factors. Kidney Int 66: 2402-2410, 2004
89. Dussol B, Iovanna C, Rotily M, Morange S, Leonetti F, Dupuy P, Vazi A, Saveanu A, Loundou A, Berland Y: A randomized trial of low-animal-protein or high-fiber diets for secondary prevention of calcium nephrolithiasis. Nephron Clin Pract 110: c185-c194, 2008
90. Taylor EN, Fung TT, Curhan GC: DASH-style diet associates with reduced risk for kidney stones. J AmSoc Nephrol 20: 2253-2259, 2009
91. Noori N, Honarkar E, Goldfarb DS, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Taheri M, Shakhssalim N, Parvin M, Basiri A: Urinary lithogenic risk profile in recurrent stone formers with hyperoxaluria: A randomized controlled trial comparing DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)-style and low-oxalate diets. Am J Kidney Dis 63: 456-463, 2014
92. Ettinger B, Pak CY, Citron JT, Thomas C, Adams-Huet B, Vangessel A: Potassium-magnesium citrate is an effective prophylaxis against recurrent calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Urol 158: 2069-2073, 1997
93. Ettinger B, Citron JT, Livermore B, Dolman LI: Chlorthalidone reduces calcium oxalate calculous recurrence but magnesium hydroxide does not. J Urol 139: 679-684, 1988
94. Ettinger B, Tang A, Citron JT, Livermore B, Williams T: Randomized trial of allopurinol in the prevention of calcium oxalate calculi. N Engl J Med 315: 1386-1389, 1986
95. Borghi L, Meschi T, Guerra A, Novarini A: Randomized prospective study of a nonthiazide diuretic, indapamide, in preventing calcium stone recurrences. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 22[Suppl 6]: S78-S86, 1993
96. Bos D, Abara E, Parmar MS: Knowledge, attitudes, and practice patterns among healthcare providers in the prevention of recurrent kidney stones in Northern Ontario. Can Urol Assoc J 8: E795-E804, 2014
97. Parks JH, Asplin JR, Coe FL: Patient adherence to long-termmedical treatment of kidney stones. J Urol 166: 2057-2060, 2001
98. Rule AD, Lieske JC, Li X, Melton LJ 3rd, Krambeck AE, Bergstralh EJ: The ROKS nomogram for predicting a second symptomatic stone episode. J Am Soc Nephrol 25: 2878-2886, 2014
99. US Department of Health and Human Services: Urinary Stone Disease Research Network, 2015. Available at: http://grants.nih. gov/grants/guide/rfa-files/RFA-DK-15-004.html. Accessed February 10, 2016