The dynamics, ecological variability and estimated carbon stocks of mangroves in Mahajamba Bay, Madagascar

Journal of Marine Science and Engineering

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 793-820

  Jones, Trevor G ^a,b   Ratsimba, Harifidy Rakoto ^c   Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, Lalao ^a   Glass, Leah ^a   Benson, Lisa ^a   Teoh, Marianne ^d   Carro, Aude ^a   Cripps, Garth ^a   Giri, Chandra ^e   Gandhi, Samir ^a   Andriamahenina, Zo ^a   Rakotomanana, Rado ^a   Roy, Pierre Francois ^f  

^a BLUE VENTURES CONSERVATION   (United Kingdom)

^b PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ANTANANARIVO   (Madagascar)

^d The Song Saa Foundation 108 e1   (Cambodia)

^e DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Mécanique et Matériaux   (France)

Author keywords

Carbon; Coastal; Dynamics; Landsat; Madagascar; Mangrove; Payments for ecosystem services (PES)

Indexed keywords

EID: 84981265913     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20771312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/jmse3030793     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Lugo, A.E., Snedaker, S.C. The ecology of mangroves. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1974, 5, 39-64.
2. Blasco, F., Bellan, M.F., Chaudhury, M.U. Estimating the extent of floods in Bangladesh-Using SPOT data. Remote Sens. Environ. 1992, 39, 167-178.
3. Marshall, N. Mangrove conservation in relation to overall environmental considerations. Hydrobiologia 1994, 285, 303-309.
4. Primavera, J.H. Socio-economic impacts of shrimp culture. Aquac. Res. 1997, 28, 815-827.
5. Kathiresan, K., Bingham, B. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 2001, 40, 81-251.
6. Alongi, D.M. Present state and future of world's mangrove forest. Environ. Conserv. 2002, 29, 331-349.
7. Mumby, P.J., Edwards, A.J., Arias-Gonzáles, E., Lindeman, K.C., Blackwell, P.G., Gall, A., Gorczynska, M.I., Harborne, A.R., Pescod, C.L., Renken, H., et al. Mangrove enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature 2004, 427, 533-536.
8. Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Jayatissa, L.P., di Nitto, D., Bosire, J.O., Lo Seen, D., Koedam, N. How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami? Curr. Biol. 2005, 15, R443-R447.
9. Barbier, E.B. Natural barriers to natural disasters: Replanting mangroves after tsunami. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2006, 4, 124-131.
10. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The World's Mangroves 1980-2005; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2007; p. 153.
11. Alongi, D.M. Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2008, 76, 1-13.
12. Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S.J., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M., Kirton, L.G., Meynecke, J.-O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H.M., Sasekumar, A., et al. The habit function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: A review. Aquat. Bot. 2008, 89, 155-185.
13. Alongi, D.M. Carbon payments for mangrove conservation: Ecosystem constraints and uncertainties of sequestration potential. Environ. Sci. Policy 2011, 14, 462-470.
14. Donato, D.C., Kauffman, J.B., Murdiyarso, D., Kumianto, S., Stidham, M., Kanninen, M. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nat. Geosci. 2011, 4, 293-297.
15. Kuezner, C., Bluemel, A., Gebhardt, S., Quoc, T.V., Dech, S. Remote sensing of mangrove ecosystems: A review. Remote Sens. 2011, 3, 878-928.
16. Pendleton, L., Donato, D.C., Murray, B.C., Crooks, S., Jenkins, W.A., Sifleet, S., Craft, C., Fourqurean, J.W., Kauffman, J.B., Marba, N., et al. Estimating global "blue carbon" emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e43542.
17. Kauffman, J.B., Heider, C., Norfolk, J., Payton, F. Carbon stocks of intact mangroves and carbon emissions arising from their conversion in the Dominican Republic. Ecol. Appl. 2014, 24, 518-527.
18. Thompson, B.S., Clubbe, C.P., Primavera, J.H., Curnick, D., Koldeway, H.J. Locally assessing the economic viability of blue carbon: A case study from Panay Island, the Philippines. Ecosyst. Serv. 2014, 8, 128-140.
19. Giri, C., Long, J., Abbas, S., Mani Murali, R., Qamer, F.M., Pengra, B., Thau, D. Distribution and dynamics of mangrove forests of South Asia. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 148, 101-111.
20. Huxham, M., Emerton, L., Kairo, J., Munyi, F., Abdirizak, H., Muriuki, T., Nunan, F., Briers, R.A. Applying Climate Compatible Development and economic valuation to coastal management: A case study of Kenya's mangrove forests. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 157, 168-181.
21. Valiela, I., Bowen, J.L., York, J.K. Mangrove forests: One of the world's threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience 2001, 51, 807-815.
22. Duke, N.C., Meynecke, J.O., Dittmann, S., Ellison, A.M., Anger, K., Berger, U., Cannicci, S., Diele, K., Ewel, K.C., Field, C.D., et al. A world without mangroves? Science 2007, 317, 41-42.
23. Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., Collins, L. World Atlas of Mangroves; Earthscan: London, UK, 2010.
24. Friess, D.A., Webb, E.L. Variability in mangrove change estimates and implications for the assessment of ecosystem provision. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2013, 23, 715-725.
25. Alongi, D.M. The Impact of Climate Change on Mangrove Forests. Curr. Clim. Chang. Rep. 2015, 1, 30-39.
26. Polidoro, B.A., Carpenter, K.E., Collins, L., Duke, N.C., Ellison, A.M., Ellison, J.C., Farnsworth, E.J., Fernando, E.S., Kathiresan, K., Koedam, N.E., et al. Mangrove extinction risk and geographic areas of global concern. PLoS ONE 2010, 5, e10095.
27. Daru, B.H., Yessoufou, K., Mankga, L.T., Davies, J. A Global Trend towards the Loss of Evolutionarily Unique Species in Mangrove Ecosystems. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, 1-9.
28. Farnsworth, E.J., Ellison, A.M. The global conservation status of mangroves. AMBIO 1997, 26, 328-334.
29. Primavera, J.H. Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: Institutional issues. Ecol. Econ. 2000, 35, 91-106.
30. Dahdouh-Guebas, F. The use of remote sensing and GIS in the sustainable management of tropical coastal ecosystems. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2002, 4, 93-112.
31. Primavera, J.H. Mangroves, fishponds, and the quest for sustainability. Science 2005, 310, 57-59.
32. Gopal, B., Chauhan, M. Biodiversity and its conservation in the Sundarban Mangrove Ecosystem. Aquat. Sci. 2006, 68, 338-354.
33. Primavera, J.H. Overcoming the impacts of aquaculture on the coastal zone. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2006, 49, 531-545.
34. Gilman, E.L., Ellison, J., Duke, N.C., Field, C. Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation options: A review. Aquat. Bot. 2008, 89, 237-250.
35. Walters, B.B., Rönnbäck, P., Kovacs, J.M., Crona, B., Hussain, S.A., Badola, R., Primavera, J.H., Barbier, E., Dahdouh-Guebas, F. Ethnobiology, socio-economics and management of mangrove forests: A review. Aquat. Bot. 2008, 89, 220-236.
36. Webb, E.L., Jachowski, N.R.A., Phelps, J., Friess, D.A., Than, M.M., Ziegler, A.D. Deforestation in the Ayeyarwady Delta and the conservation implications of an internationally-engaged Myanmar. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2014, 24, 321-333.
37. Sitoe, A.A., Mandlate, L.J.C., Guedes, B.S. Biomass and Carbon Stocks of Sofala Bay Mangrove Forests. Forests 2014, 5, 1967-1981.
38. Field, C.D. Impact of expected climate change on mangroves. Hydrobiologia 1995, 295, 75-81.
39. Krauss, K.W., Lovelock, C.E., McKee, K.L., Lopez-Hoffman, L., Ewe, S.M.L., Sousa, W.P. Environmental drivers in mangrove establishment and early development: A review. Aquat. Bot. 2008, 89, 105-127.
40. Chan, H.T., Baba, S. Manual on Guidelines for Rehabilitation of Coastal Forests Damaged by Natural Hazards in the Asia-Pacific Region; International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO): Okinawa, Japan, 2009; p. 66.
41. Suzuki, T., Zijlema, M., Burger, B., Meijer, M.C., Narayan, S. Wave dissipation by vegetation with layer schematization in SWAN. Coast. Eng. 2012, 59, 64-71.
42. Di Nitto, D., Neukermans, G., Koedman, N., Defever, H., Pattyn, F., Kairo, J.G., Dahdouh-Guebas, F. Mangroves facing climate change: landward migration potential in response to projected scenarios of sea level rise. Biogeosciences 2014, 11, 857-871.
43. Heumann, B.W. Satellite remote sensing of mangrove forests: Recent advances and future opportunities. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 2011, 35, 87-108.
44. Manson, F.J., Loneragan, N.R., McLeod, I.M., Kenyon, R.A. Assessing techniques for estimating the extent of mangroves: Topographic maps, aerial photographs, and Landsat TM images. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2001, 52, 787-792.
45. Ruiz-Luna, A., Berlanga-Robles, C.A. Land use, land cover changes and coastal lagoon surface reduction associated with urban growth in northwest Mexico. Landsc. Ecol. 2003, 18, 159-171.
46. Cornejo, R.H., Koedam, N., Luna, A.R., Troell, M., Dahdouh-Guebas, F. Remote sensing and ethno-botanical assessment of the mangrove forest changes in the Navachiste-San Ignacio-Macapule lagoon complex, Sinaloa, Mexico. Ecol. Soc. 2005, 10, 16.
47. Beland, M., Goita, K., Bonn, F., Pham, T.T.H. Assessment of land-cover changes related to shrimp aquaculture using remote sensing data: A case study in the Giao Thuy District, Vietnam. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2006, 27, 1491-1510.
48. Giri, C., Pengra, B., Zhu, Z.L., Singh, A., Tieszen, L.L. Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2007, 73, 91-100.
49. Giri, C., Zhu, Z., Tieszen, L.L., Singh, A., Gillette, S., Kelmelis, J.A. Mangrove forest distributions and dynamics (1975-2005) of the tsunami-affected region of Asia. J. Biogeogr. 2008, 35, 519-528.
50. Liu, K., Li, X., Shi, X., Wang, S.G. Monitoring mangrove forest changes using remote sensing and GIS data with decision-tree learning. Wetlands 2008, 28, 336-346.
51. Paling, E.I., Kobryn, H.T., Humphreys, G. Assessing the extent of mangrove change caused by Cyclone Vance in the eastern Exmouth Gulf, northwestern Australia. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2008, 77, 603-613.
52. Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L.L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J., Duke, N. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2011, 20, 154-159.
53. Alsaaideh, B., Al-Hanbali, A., Tateishi, R., KoBayashi, T., Hoan, N.T. Mangrove forests mapping in the southern part of Japan using Landsat ETM+ with DEM. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 2013, 5, 369-377.
54. Li, M.S., Mao, L.J., Shen, W.J., Liu, S.Q., Wei, A.I. Change and fragmentation trends of Zhanjiang mangrove forests in southern China using multi-temporal Landsat imagery (1977-2010). Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2013, 130, 111-120.
55. Nguyen, H., McAlpine, C., Pullar, D., Johansen, K., Duke, N. The relationship of spatial-temporal changes in fringe mangrove extent and adjacent land-use: Case study of Ken Giang coast, Vietnam. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2013, 76, 12-22.
56. Jones, T.G., Ratsimba, H.R., Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L., Cripps, G., Bey, A. Ecological Variability and Carbon Stock Estimates of Mangrove Ecosystems in Northwestern Madagascar. Forests 2014, 5, 177-205.
57. Giri, C., Muhlhausen, J. Mangrove forest distributions and dynamics in Madagascar (1975-2005). Sensors 2008, 8, 2104-2117.
58. Giri, C. National-Level Mangrove Cover Data-Sets for 1990, 2000 and 2010; United States Geological Survey: Sioux Falls, SD, USA, 2011.
59. Rasolofoharinoro, M., Blasco, F., Bellan, M.F., Aizpuru, M., Gauquelin, T., Denis, J. A remote sensing based methodology for mangrove studies in Madagascar. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1998, 19, 1873-1886.
60. Pasqualini, V., Iltis, J., Dessay, N., Lointier, M., Guelorget, O., Polidori, L. Mangrove mapping in North-Western Madagascar using SPOT-XS and SIR-C radar data. Hydrobiologia 1999, 413, 127-133.
61. Guillet, M., Renou, E., Robin, M., Debaine, F., Ratsivalaka, S. Suivi et analyze de l'evolution de la mangrove de Mahajamba (Nord-ouest de Madagascar). In Proceedings of the International Pluridisciplinary Conference, Lille, France, 16-18 January 2008.
62. Rasofolo, M.V. Use of mangroves by traditional fishermen in Madagascar. Mangroves Salt Marshes 1997, 1, 243-253.
63. Cornell University, 2001. The Commune Census by the ILO program of Cornell University in collaboration with FOFIFA and INSTAT. Available online: http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/ilo /data.html (accessed on 1 June 2012).
64. Mayaux, P., Gond, V., Bartholome, E. A near-real time forest-cover map of Madagascar derived from SPOT-4 VEGETATION data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2000, 21, 3139-3144.
65. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). Madagascar Vegetation Mapping Project; CEPF: Arlington, VA, USA, 2007.
66. Harper, G.J., Steininger, M.K., Tucker, C.J., Juhn, D., Hawkins, F. Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar. Environ. Conserv. 2007, 34, 325-333.
67. Richards, M., Panfil, S.N. Social and Biodiversity Impact Assessment (SBIA) Manual for REDD+ Projects: Part 1-Core Guidance for Project Proponents; Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance, Forest Trends, Fauna & Flora International, and Rainforest Alliance: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
68. Richards, M. Social and Biodiversity Impact Assessment (SBIA) Manual for REDD+ Projects: Part 2-Social Impact Assessment Toolbox; Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance and Forest Trends with Rainforest Alliance and Fauna & Flora International: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
69. Chavez, P.S. Image-based atmospheric corrections: Revisited and improved. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 1996, 62, 1025-1036.
70. Kirui, K.B., Kairo, J.G., Bosire, J., Viergever, K.M., Rudra, S., Huxham, M., Briers, R.A. Mapping of mangrove forest land cover change along the Kenya coastline using Landsat imagery. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2013, 83, 19-24.
71. Simard, M., Zhang, K.Q., Rivera-Monroy, V.H., Ross, M.S., Ruiz, P.L., Castaneda-Moya, E., Twilley, R.R., Rodriguez, E. Mapping height and biomass of mangrove forests in Everglades National Park with SRTM elevation data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 2006, 72, 299-311.
72. Fatoyinbo, T.E., Simard, M., Washington-Allen, R.A., Shugart, H.H. Landscape-scale extent, height, biomass, and carbon estimation of Mozambique's mangrove forests with Landsat ETM+ and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission elevation data. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 2008, 113, doi:10.1029/2007JG000551.
73. Simard, M., Rivera-Monroy, V.H., Mancera-Pineda, J.E., Castaneda-Moya, E., Twilley, R.R. A systematic method for 3D mapping of mangrove forests based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission elevation data, ICEsat/GLAS waveforms and field data: Application to Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia. Remote Sens. Environ. 2008, 112, 2131-2144.
74. Fatoyinbo, T.E., Simard, M. Height and biomass of mangroves in Africa from ICESat/GLAS and SRTM. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2013, 34, 668-681.
75. Aslan, A., Rahman, A.F., Warren, M., Robeson, S.M., Darusman, T. Combined Use of Active and Passive Remote Sensing for Mapping Distribution and Biomass of Coastal Mangroves. In Proceedings of the 2014 AGU fall meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA, 15-19 December 2014; p. 0093.
76. Bhattarai, B., Giri, C. Assessment of mangrove forests in the Pacific region using Landsat imagery. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2011, 5, 053509.
77. Long, J.B., Giri, C. Mapping the Philippines' mangrove forests using Landsat imagery. Sensors 2011, 11, 2972-2981.
78. Tomlinson, P.B. The Botany of Mangroves; Cambridge University Press: Melbourne, Australia, 1986.
79. Aschbacher, J., Ofren, R., Delsol, J.P., Suselo, T.B., Vibulsresth, S., Charrupat, T. An integrated comparative approach to mangrove vegetation mapping using advanced remote sensing and GIS technologies: Preliminary results. Hydrologica 1995, 295, 285-295.
80. Gao, J.A. Hybrid method toward accurate mapping of mangroves in a marginal habitat from SPOT Multispectral data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1998, 19, 1887-1899.
81. Green, E.P., Clark, C.D., Mumby, P.J., Edwards, A.J., Ellis, A.C. Remote sensing techniques for mangrove mapping. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1998, 19, 935-956.
82. Gao, J.A. Comparative study on spatial and spectral resolutions of satellite data in mapping mangrove forests. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1999, 20, 2823-2833.
83. Saito, H., Bellan, M.F., Al-Habshi, A., Aizpuru, M., Blasco, F. Mangrove research and coastal ecosystem studies with SPOT-4 HRVIR and TERRA ASTER in Arabian Gulf. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2003, 24, 4073-4092.
84. Tong, P.H., Auda, Y., Populus, J., Aizpura, M., Habshi, A.A., Blasco, F. Assessment from space of mangroves evolution in the Mekong Delta, in relation to extensive shrimp farming. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2004, 25, 4795-4812.
85. Jensen, L.S., Mueller, T., Tate, K.R., Ross, D.J., Magid, J., Nielsen, N.E. Soil surface CO2 flux as an index of soil respiration in situ: A comparison of two chamber methods. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1996, 28, 1297-1306.
86. Kauffman, J.B., Donato, D.C. Protocols for the Measurement, Monitoring and Reporting of Structure, Biomass and Carbon Stocks in Mangrove Forests. Working Paper 86; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia, 2012.
87. Kauffman, J.B., Heider, C., Cole, T.G., Dwire, K.A., Donato, D.C. Ecosystem carbon stocks of Micronesian mangrove forests. Wetlands 2011, 31, 343-352.
88. Komiyama, A., Poungparn, S., Kato, S. Common allometric equations for estimate the tree weight of mangroves. J. Trop. Ecol. 2005, 21, 471-477.
89. Simpson, W.T. Method to Estimate Dry-Kiln Schedules and Species Groupings: Tropical and Temperate Hardwoods; US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory: Washington, DC, USA, 1996.
90. Dharmawan, I.W.S., Siregar, C.A. Soil carbon and carbon estimation of Avicennia marina (Forsk). Vierh. Stand at Ciasem, Purwakarta. J. Penelit. Hutan dan Konservasi Alam. 2008, 5, 317-328.
91. Clough, B.F., Scott, K. Allometric relationships for estimating above-ground biomass in six mangrove species. For. Ecol. Manag. 1989, 27, 117-127.
92. Chave, J., Andalo, C., Brown, S., Cairns, M.A., Chambers, J.Q., Eamus, D., Fölster, H., Fromard, F., Higuchi, N., Kira, T. et al. Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia 2005, 145, 87-99.
93. Cole, T.G., Ewel, K., Devoe, N.N. Structure of mangrove trees and forests in Micronesia. For. Ecol. Manag. 1999, 117, 95-109.
94. Comley, B.W.T., McGuinness, K.A. Above-and below-ground biomass, and allometry, of four common northern Australian mangroves. Aust. J. Bot. 2005, 53, 431-436.
95. Sinclair, T.T., Hoffer, R.M., Schreiber, M.M. Reflectance and internal structure of leaves from several crops during a growing season. Agron. J. 1971, 63, 864-868.
96. Elvidge, C.D. Visible and near-infrared reflectance characteristics of dry plant materials. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1990, 11, 1775-1795.
97. Curran, P.J. Remote sensing of foliar chemistry. Remote Sens. Environ. 1989, 30, 271-278.
98. Tamura, M., Kikushima, K. Extraction of mangrove forests using a satellite image and a digital elevation model. In Remote Sensing for Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Hydrology X; SPIE: Cardiff, UK, 2008; Volume 7104.
99. Plugge, D., Baldauf, T., Ratsimba, H.R., Rajoelison, G., Köhl, M. Combined biomass inventory in the scope of REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). Madag. Conserv. Dev. 2010, 5, 23-34.
100. Jones, T.G., Ratsimba, H.R., Carro, A., Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L., Glass, L., Teoh, M., Benson, L., Cripps, G., Giri, C., Zafindrasilivonona, B., et al. The mangroves of Ambanja and Ambaro Bays, northwest Madagascar: Historical dynamics, current status and deforestation mitigation strategy. In Estuaries: a Lifeline of Ecosystem Services in Western Indian Ocean; Diop, S., Scheren, P., Eds., Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2015.
101. Stringer, C.E., Trettin, C.C., Zarnoch, S.J., Tang, W. The Zambezi River Delta Mangrove Carbon Project: A Pilot Baseline Assessment for REDD+ Reporting and Monitoring; United States Forest Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2014.
102. Adame, M.F., Kauffman, J.B., Medina, I., Gamboa, J.N., Torres, O., Caamal, J.P., Reza, M., Herrera-Silveira, J.A. Carbon stocks of tropical coastal wetlands within the Karstic landscape of the Mexican Caribbean. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e56569.
103. Kauffman, J.B., Cole, T.G. Micronesian mangrove forest structure and tree responses to a severe typhoon. Wetlands 2010, 30, 1077-1084.
104. Twilley, R.R., Chen, R.H., Hargis, T. Carbon sinks in mangroves and their implications to carbon budget of tropical coastal ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollut. 1992, 64, 265-288.
105. Komiyama, A., Ong, J.E., Poungparn, S. Allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: A review. Aquat. Bot. 2008, 89, 128-137.
106. Alongi, D.M. The Energetics of Mangrove Forests; Springer Science and Business Media BV: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
107. Kairo, J.G., Bosire, J., Langat, J., Kirui, B., Koedam, N. Allometry and biomass distribution in replanted mangrove plantations at Gazi Bay, Kenya. Aquat. Conserv. 2009, 19, S63-S69.
108. Camacho, L.D., Gevana, D.T., Carandang, A.P., Sofronio, C.C., Combalicer, E.A., Rebugio, L.L., Youn, Y.-C. Tree biomass and carbon stock of a community-managed mangrove forest in Bohol, Phillipines. For. Sci. Technol. 2011, 7, 161-167.
109. Mitra, A., Sengupta, K., Banerjee, K. Standing biomass and carbon storage of above-ground structures in dominant mangrove trees in the Sundarbans. For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 261, 1325-1335.
110. Abino, A.C., Castillo, J.A.A., Lee, Y.J. Assessment of species diversity, biomass and carbon sequestration potential of a natural mangrove stand in Samar, the Philippines. For. Sci. Technol. 2013, 10, 2-8.
111. Hutchison, J., Manica, A., Swetnam, R., Balmford, A., Spalding, M. Predicting global patterns in mangrove forest biomass. Conserv. Lett. 2013, 7, 233-240.
112. Cohen, R., Kaino, J., Okello, J.A., Bosire, J.O., Kairo, J.G., Huxham, M., Mencuccini, M. Propogating uncertainty to estimates of above-ground biomass for Kenyan mangroves: A scaling procedure from tree to landscape level. For. Ecol. Manag. 2013, 310, 968-982.
113. Ajonina, G.N., Kairo, J., Grimsditch, G., Sembres, T., Chuyong, G., Diyouke, E. Assessment of mangrove carbon stocks in Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of Congo (RoC) and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) including their potential for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+). In The Land/Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone of West and Central Africa; Diop, S., Barusseau, J.-P., Descamps, C., Eds., Springer International Publishing: Berlin, Germany, 2014; pp. 177-189.
114. Hamilton, S.E., Lovette, J. Ecuador's Mangrove Forest Carbon Stocks: A Spatiotemporal Analysis of Living Carbon Holdings and Their Depletion since the Advent of Commercial Aquaculture. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0118880.
115. Golley, F., Odum, H.T., Wilson, R.F. The structure and metabolism of a Puerto Rican red mangrove forest in May. Ecology 1962, 43, 9-19.
116. Eong, O.J. Mangroves-A carbon source and sink. Chemosphere 1993, 27, 1097-1107.
117. Matsui, N. Estimated stocks of organic carbon in mangrove roots and sediments in Hinchinbrook Band, Australia. Mangroves Salt Marshes 1998, 2, 199-204.
118. Fujimoto, K., Imaya, A., Tabuchi, R., Kuramoto, S., Utsugi, H., Murofushi, T. Belowground C storage of Micronesian mangrove forests. Ecol. Res. 1999, 14, 409-413.
119. Ray, R., Ganguly, D., Chowdhury, C., Dey, M., Das, S., Dutta, M.K., Mandal, S.K., Majumder, N., De, T.K., Mukhopadhyay, S.K., et al. Carbon sequestration and annual increase of carbon stock in a mangrove forest. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 5016-5024.
120. Chen, L., Zeng, X., Tam, N.F.Y., Lu, W., Luo, Z., Du, X., Wang, J. Comparing carbon sequestration and stand structure of monoculture and mixed mangrove plantations of Sonneratia caseolaris and S. apetala in Southern China. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 284, 222-229.
121. Wang, G., Dongsheng, G., Peart, M.R., Chen, Y., Peng, Y. Ecosystem carbon stocks of mangrove forest in Yingluo Bay, Guangdon Province of South China. For. Ecol. Manag. 2013, 310, 539-546.
122. Jardine, S.L., Siikamäki, J.V. A global predictive model of carbon in mangrove soils. Environ. Res. Lett. 2014, 9, 104013.
123. Liu, H., Ren, H., Hui, D., Wang, W., Liao, B., Cao, Q. Carbon stocks and potential carbon storage in the mangrove forests of China. J. Environ. Manag. 2014, 133, 86-93.
124. De la Cruz, A.A. Tropical wetlands as a carbon source. Aquat. Bot. 1986, 25, 109-115.
125. Hooijer, A., Silvius, M., Wösten, H., Page, S. PEAT-CO2: Assessment of CO2 Emissions from Drained Peatlands in SE Asia, Delft Hydraulics, Report Q3943, 1st ed., Wetlands International, Delft Hydraulics: Delft, The Netherlands, 2006.
126. Grimsditch, G., Alder, J., Nakamura, T., Kenchington, R., Tamelander, J. The blue carbon special edition-Introduction and overview. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2013, 83, 1-4.
127. Alongi, D.M. Carbon Cycling and Storage in Mangrove Forests. Annu. Review Mar. Science 2014, 6, 195-219.
128. Schumacher, B. Methods for the Determination of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in Soils and Sediments; Ecological Risk Assessment Support Center, Office of Research and Development; US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
129. Mikhailova, E.A., Noble, R.R.P., Post, C.J. Comparison of soil organic carbon recovery by Walkley-Black and dry combustion methods in the Russian Chernozem. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2003, 34, 1853-1860.
130. De Vos, B., Letterns, S., Muys, B., Deckers, J.A. Walkley-Black analysis of forest soil organic carbon: Recovery, limitations and uncertainty. Soil Use Manag. 2007, 23, 221-229.
131. Meersmans, J., van Wesemael, B., van Molle, M. Determining soil organic carbon for agricultural soils: A comparison between the Walkley & Black and the dry combustion methods (north Belgium). Soil Use Manag. 2009, 25, 346-353.