Interventions for smokeless tobacco use cessation

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2015, Issue 10, 2015, Pages

  Ebbert, Jon O ^a   Elrashidi, Muhamad Y ^a   Stead, Lindsay F ^b  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; NICOTINE GUM; NICOTINE LOZENGE; NICOTINE PATCH; VARENICLINE; BENZAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CHEWING GUM; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC AGENT; QUINOXALINE DERIVATIVE;

BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT; DENTAL HEALTH; DRUG EFFICACY; HUMAN; NICOTINE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; PATIENT COUNSELING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SMOKELESS TOBACCO; SMOKING CESSATION; SOCIAL SUPPORT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TELEHEALTH; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TOBACCO USE; TREATMENT DURATION; CHEWING GUM; COUNSELING; META ANALYSIS; PROCEDURES;

BENZAZEPINES; BUPROPION; CHEWING GUM; COUNSELING; HUMANS; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC AGONISTS; QUINOXALINES; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; TOBACCO USE CESSATION; TOBACCO, SMOKELESS; VARENICLINE;

EID: 84979865104     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004306.pub5     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Boyle R, Severson H, Lichtenstein E, Gordon J. Smokeless tobacco cessation with nicotine reduction: A placebo controlled trial. Paper presented at: 121st Annual Meeting, American Public Health Association; San Francisco, CA. 1992.
2. Boyle RG. Smokeless tobacco cessation with nicotine replacement: A randomized clinical trial. Dissertation Abstracts International 1992;54(3):825.
3. Boyle RG, Pronk NP, Enstad CJ. A randomized trial of telephone counseling with adult moist snuff users. American Journal of Health Behavior 2004;28(4):347-51.
4. Boyle RG, Enstad C, Asche SE, Thoele MJ, Sherwood NE, Severson HH, et al. A randomized controlled trial of Telephone Counseling with smokeless tobacco users: the ChewFree Minnesota study. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(9):1433-40.
5. Cigrang JA, Severson HH, Peterson AL. Pilot evaluation of a population-based health intervention for reducing use of smokeless tobacco. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2002;4(1):127-31.
6. Cummings SR. An evaluation of a behavioral change intervention for smokeless tobacco use. Dissertation Abstracts International 1996;56(12-B):6692.
7. Cummings SR. An evaluation of a behavioral change intervention for smokeless tobacco use [dissertation]. University of Texax H.S.C. at Houston School of Public Health. University of Texas, 1995.
8. Dale LC, Ebbert JO, Schroeder DR, Croghan IT, Rasmussen DF, Trautman JA, et al. Bupropion for the treatment of nicotine dependence in spit tobacco users: a pilot study. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2002;4(3):267-74.
9. Thomas JL, Ebbert JO, Patten CA, Dale LC, Bronars CA, Schroeder DR. Measuring nicotine dependence among smokeless tobacco users. Addictive Behaviors 2006;31:1511-21.
10. Dale LC, Ebbert JO, Glover ED, Croghan IT, Schroeder DR, Severson HH, et al. Bupropion SR for the treatment of smokeless tobacco use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2007;90(1):56-63.
11. Ebbert JO, Glover ED, Shinozaki E, Schroeder DR, Dale LC. Predictors of smokeless tobacco abstinence. American Journal of Health Behavior 2008;32:735-40.
12. Danaher BG, Severson HH, Andrews JA, Tyler MS, Lichtenstein E, Woolley TG, et al. Randomized controlled trial of MyLastDip: a Web-based smokeless tobacco cessation program for chewers ages 14-25. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(9):1502-10. [CENTRAL: 917675; CRS: 9400126000000214; EMBASE: 2013568935; PUBMED: 23410803]
13. Severson HH, Danaher BG, Tyler M. Mylastdip.com: a web-based cessation program for young chewers. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 16th Annual Meeting February 24-27, Baltimore, Maryland. 2009.
14. Danaher BG, Severson HH, Zhu S-H, Andrews JA, Cummins SE, Lichtenstein E, et al. Randomized controlled trial of the combined effects of Web and Quitline interventions for smokeless tobacco cessation. Internet Interventions 2015;2(2):143-51. [CENTRAL: 1069077; CRS: 9400131000001466; EMBASE: 2015843626; PUBMED: 25914872]
15. Danaher BG, Severson HH, Zhu S-H, Lichtenstein E, Andrews JA, Yearick C. Evaluating the relative efficacy of web-based intervention and helpline in smokeless tobacco cessation: the CHEWFREE II RCT [SM 12C]. Society for Research on Nicotine & Tobacco 17th Annual Meeting, February 16-19, Toronto. 2011:15. [CENTRAL: 793628; CRS: 9400123000006079]
16. Danaher BG, Severson HH, Crowley R, van Meter N, Tyler MS, Widdop C, et al. Randomized controlled trial examining the adjunctive use of nicotine lozenges with MyLastDip: An eHealth smokeless tobacco cessation intervention. Internet Interventions 2015;2(1):69-76. [CENTRAL: 1040086; CRS: 9400129000003840; EMBASE: 2015660497]
17. Ebbert JO, Dale LC, Patten CA, Croghan IT, Schroeder DR, Moyer TP, et al. Effect of high-dose nicotine patch therapy on tobacco withdrawal symptoms among smokeless tobacco users. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9(1):43-52.
18. Ebbert JO, Post JA, Moyer TP, Dale LC, Schroeder DR, Hurt RD. Nicotine percentage replacement among smokeless tobacco users with nicotine patch. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2007;89:223-6.
19. Ebbert JO, Severson HH, Croghan IT, Danaher BG, Schroeder DR. A randomized clinical trial of nicotine lozenge for smokeless tobacco use. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(12):1415-23.
20. Ebbert JO, Severson HH, Croghan IT, Danaher BG, Schroeder DR. A pilot study of mailed nicotine lozenges with assisted self-help for the treatment of smokeless tobacco users. Addictive Behaviors 2010;35(5):522-5.
21. Ebbert JO, Croghan IT, Severson HH, Schroeder DR, Hays JT. A pilot study of the efficacy of varenicline for the treatment of smokeless tobacco users in Midwestern United States. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2011;13(9):820-6. [CENTRAL: 814614; CRS: 9400123000011659; PUBMED: 21504885]
22. Ebbert JO, Severson HH, Croghan IT, Danaher BG, Schroeder DR. Comparative effectiveness of the nicotine lozenge and tobacco-free snuff for smokeless tobacco reduction. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(5):2140-5. [CENTRAL: 908773; CRS: 9400123000017948; EMBASE: 2013134265; PUBMED: 23454876]
23. Ebbert JO, Croghan IT, Schroeder DR, Hurt RD. A randomized phase II clinical trial of high-dose nicotine patch therapy for smokeless tobacco users. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(12):2037-44. [CENTRAL: 915429; CRS: 9400129000000259; EMBASE: 2013716994; PUBMED: 23873976]
24. Fagerstrom K, Gilljam H, Lund KE, Metcalfe M, Tonstad S. Efficacy of varenicline in cessation of oral tobacco use: design and preliminary results of a randomised, multicentre, double blind, placebo controlled study (POS5-34). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 15th Annual Meeting April 27-30, Dublin, Ireland. 2009.
25. Fagerstrom K, Gilljam H, Metcalfe M, Tonstad S, Messig M. Stopping smokeless tobacco with varenicline: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2010;341:c6549. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.c6549.]
26. Gansky SA, Ellison JA, Rudy D, Bergert N, Letendre MA, Nelson L, et al. Cluster-randomized controlled trial of an athletic trainer-directed spit (smokeless) tobacco intervention for collegiate baseball athletes: Results after 1 year. Journal of Athletic Training 2005;40(2):76-87.
27. Allen SS, Hatsukami D, Jensen J, Grillo M, Bliss R. Effects of treatment on cardiovascular risk among smokeless tobacco users. Preventive Medicine 1995;24:357-62.
28. Hatsukami DK, Jensen J, Allen S, Grillo MA, Bliss R. Effects of behavioral and pharmacological treatment on smokeless tobacco users. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1996;64(1):153-61.
29. Hatsukami DK, Grillo M, Boyle R, Allen S, Jensen J, Bliss R, et al. Treatment of spit tobacco users with transdermal nicotine system and mint snuff. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000;68(2):241-9.
30. Howard-Pitney B, Killen JD, Fortmann SP. Quitting chew: results from a randomized trial using nicotine patches. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 1999;7(4):362-71.
31. Schiller KR, Luo X, Anderson AJ, Jensen JA, Allen SS, Hatsukami DK. Comparing an immediate cessation versus reduction approach to smokeless tobacco cessation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2012;14(8):902-9. [CENTRAL: 1000319; CRS: 9400123000015773; EMBASE: 2012484265; PUBMED: 22218402]
32. Andrews JA, Severson HH, Lichtenstein E, Gordon JS, Barckley MF. Evaluation of a dental office tobacco cessation program: Effects on smokeless tobacco use. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 1999;21:48-53.
33. Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Gordon JS. Smokeless tobacco cessation through dental offices: An intervention that works. Journal of Dental Research 1998;77:1206.
34. Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Gordon JS, Barckley MF. Using the hygiene visit to deliver a tobacco cessation program: results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Dental Association 1998;129(7):993-9.
35. Severson HH, Akers L, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Jerome A. Evaluating two self-help interventions for smokeless tobacco cessation. Addictive Behaviors 2000;25:465-70.
36. Akers L, Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E. Cost-effectiveness of self-help smokeless tobacco cessation programs. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9:907-14.
37. Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Danaher BG, Akers L. Self-help cessation programs for smokeless tobacco users: Long-term follow-up of a randomized trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9(2):281-9.
38. Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Gordon JS, Barckley M, Akers L. A self-help cessation program for smokeless tobacco users: comparison of two interventions. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2000;2(4):363-70.
39. Severson HH, Lichtenstein E, Andrews JA, Akers L. Long-term cessation outcomes for a self-help smokeless tobacco intervention (POS4-23). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 9th Annual Meeting, February 19-22, New Orleans, Louisiana. 2003.
40. Danaher BG, Hart LG, McKay HG, Severson HH. Measuring participant rurality in Web-based interventions. BMC Public Health 2007;7:228.
41. Gordon JS, Akers L, Severson HH, Danaher BG, Boles SM. Successful participant recruitment strategies for an online smokeless tobacco cessation program. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2006;8 Suppl 1:S35-41.
42. Gordon JS, Severson HH, Akers L, Boles SM. Chewfree.com: development, recruitment, and user engagement. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 11th Annual Meeting, 20-23 March 2005; Prague, Czech Republic 2005.
43. Severson HH, Gordon JS, Boles SM, Danaher BG, Akers L. Chewfree.com: Results of a web-delivered smokeless tobacco cessation program (POS1-71). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 12th Annual Meeting, Orlando, FLA. 2006.
44. Severson HH, Gordon JS, Danaher BG, Akers L. ChewFree.com: evaluation of a Web-based cessation program for smokeless tobacco users. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(2):381-91.
45. Severson, HH. Chewfree.com: An effective web-based cessation program for smokeless tobacco users. III Annual Spit Tobacco Summit, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN. 2006.
46. Severson HH, Gordon J, Andrews JA, Peterson AL, Cigrang J. Evaluating motivational interview phone support for smokeless tobacco cessation with military personnel (PA10-6). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 12th Annual Meeting, Orlando, Florida. 2006.
47. Severson HH, Peterson AL, Andrews JA, Gordon JS, Cigrang JA, Danaher BG, et al. Smokeless tobacco cessation in military personnel: a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11:730-8.
48. Severson HH, Peterson AL, Andrews JA, Gordon JS, Cigrang JA, Danaher BG, et al. Smokeless tobacco cessation in military personnel: a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(6):730-8.
49. Severson HH, Danaher BG, Ebbert JO, van Meter N, Lichtenstein E, Widdop C, et al. Randomized trial of nicotine lozenges and phone counseling for smokeless tobacco cessation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2015;17(3):309-15. [CRS: 9400131000001679; PUBMED: 25168034]
50. Little SJ, Stevens VJ, Severson HH, Lichtenstein E. Effective smokeless tobacco intervention for dental hygiene patients. Journal of Dental Hygiene 1992;66:185-90.
51. Stevens VJ, Severson H, Lichtenstein E, Little SJ, Leben J. Making the most of a teachable moment -a smokeless-tobacco cessation intervention in the dental office. American Journal of Public Health 1995;85:231-5.
52. Stotts RC, Roberson PK, Hanna EY, Jones SK. Effectiveness of the nicotine patch in spit tobacco cessation with adolescents (PO2 24). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 8th Annual Meeting February 20-23 Savannah, Georgia. 2003.
53. Stotts RC, Roberson PK, Hanna EY, Jones SK, Smith CK. A randomised clinical trial of nicotine patches for treatment of spit tobacco addiction among adolescents. Tobacco Control 2003;12(Suppl 4):iv11-iv15.
54. Virtanen SE, Zeebari Z, Rohyo I, Galanti MR. Evaluation of a brief counseling for tobacco cessation in dental clinics among Swedish smokers and snus users. A cluster randomized controlled trial (the FRITT study). Preventive Medicine 2015;70:26-32. [CENTRAL: 1036091; CRS: 9400129000003897; EMBASE: 2014936062; PUBMED: 25445335]
55. Masouredis CM, Hilton JF, Grady D, Gee L, Chesney M, Hengl L, et al. A spit tobacco cessation intervention for college athletes: three-month results. Advances in Dental Research 1997;11(3):354-9.
56. Walsh MM, Hilton JF, Masouredis CM, Gee L, Chesney MA, Ernster VL. Smokeless tobacco cessation intervention for college athletes: results after 1 year. American Journal of Public Health 1999;89:228-34.
57. Walsh MM, Hilton JF, Ellison, JA, Gee L, Chesney MA, Tomar SL, et al. Spit (smokeless) tobacco intervention for high school athletes: results after 1 year. Addictive Behaviors 2003;28(6):1095-1113.
58. Walsh MM, Langer TJ, Kavanagh N, Mansell C, MacDougal W, Kavanagh C, et al. Smokeless tobacco cessation cluster randomized trial with rural high school males: intervention interaction with baseline smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(6):543-50.
59. Chakravorty BJ. A product substitution approach to adolescent smokeless tobacco cessation. Dissertation Abstracts International 1992;53(6-B):2808-9.
60. Croucher R, Islam S, Jarvis MJ, Garrett M, Rahman R, Shajahan S, et al. Oral tobacco cessation with UK resident Bangladeshi women: a community pilot investigation. Health Education Research 2003;18(2):216-23.
61. Ebbert JO, Edmonds A, Luo X, Jensen J, Hatsukami DK. Smokeless tobacco reduction with the nicotine lozenge and behavioral intervention. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(8):823-7.
62. Glover ED, Wang MQ, Glover PN. Development of a high school smokeless tobacco cessation manual. Health Values 1994;18(2):28-33.
63. Glover ED, Glover PN, Sullivan CR, Cerullo CL, Hobbs G. A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smokeless tobacco cessation. American Journal of Health Behavior 2002;26(5):386-93.
64. Glover ED, Hobbs G, Cerullo C, Sullivan R, Glover PN. Use of bupropion SR for treating smokeless tobacco nicotine dependence (PO4 66). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 7th Annual Meeting March 23-23 Seattle Washington. 2001.
65. Gordon JS, Andrews JA, Crews KM, Payne TJ, Severson HH, Lichtenstein E. Do faxed quitline referrals add value to dental office-based tobacco-use cessation interventions?. Journal of the American Dental Association (1939) 2010;141(8):1000-7. [CRS: 9400123000013813; PUBMED: 20675426]
66. Greene JC, Walsh MM, Masouredis C. A program to help major league baseball players quit using spit tobacco. Journal of the American Dental Association 1994;125(5):559-68.
67. Gupta PC, Aghi MB, Bhonsle RB, Murti PR, Mehta FS. An intervention study of tobacco chewing and smoking habits for primary prevention of oral cancer among 12, 212 Indian villagers. In: Zaridze DG, Peto R editor(s). Tobacco: a major international health hazard. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1986:307-18.
68. Hatsukami DK, Edmonds A, Schulte S, Jensen J, Le CT, Losey L, et al. Preliminary study on reducing oral moist snuff use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2003;70(2):215-20.
69. Hatsukami DK, Ebbert JO, Edmonds A, Li C, Lin H, Le C, et al. Smokeless tobacco reduction: preliminary study of tobacco-free snuff versus no snuff. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(1):77-85.
70. Jain R, Jhanjee S, Jain V, Gupta T, Mittal S, Goelz P, et al. A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial of varenicline for smokeless tobacco dependence in India. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2014;16(1):50-7. [CENTRAL: 1000326; CRS: 9400129000002785; PUBMED: 23946326]
71. Cooper TV, Taylor T, Murray A, Debon MW, Vander Weg MW, Klesges RC, et al. Differences between intermittent and light daily smokers in a population of U.S. military recruits. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(5):465-73.
72. Klesges RC, DeBon M, Vander Weg MW, Haddock CK, Lando HA, Relyea GE, et al. Efficacy of a tailored tobacco control program on long-term use in a population of U.S. military troops. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 2006;74(2):295-306.
73. McChargue DE, Collins FLJ, Cohen LM. Effect of non-nicotinic moist snuff replacement and lobeline on withdrawal symptoms during 48-h smokeless tobacco deprivation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2002;4(2):195-200.
74. Raja M, Saha S, Mohd S, Narang R, Reddy LK, Kumari M. Cognitive behavioural therapy versus basic health education for tobacco cessation among tobacco users: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 2014;8(4):ZC47-9. [CENTRAL: 988479; CRS: 9400050000000056; EMBASE: 2014290928; PUBMED: 24959516]
75. Vigg A, Vigg A, Vigg A. Efficacy of bupropion in smokeless tobacco -A placebo control trial. Abstract and presentation at 13th Annual Congress of the European Respiratory Society, Vienna, September 27-October 1. 2003.
76. Williams NJ. A smokeless tobacco cessation program for postsecondary students. Dissertation Abstracts International 1992;53(6-A):1821.
77. Williams NJ, Arheart KL, Klesges R. A smokeless tobacco cessation program for postsecondary students. Health Values 1995;19:33-42.
78. Sarkar BK, Shahab L, Arora M, Lorencatto F, Reddy KS, West R. A cluster randomized controlled trial of a brief tobacco cessation intervention for low-income communities in India: study protocol. Addiction (Abingdon, England) 2014;109(3):371-8. [CENTRAL: 1066728; CRS: 9400129000001760; PUBMED: 24417235]
79. Alpert HR, Koh H, Connolly GN. Free nicotine content and strategic marketing of moist snuff tobacco products in the United States: 2000-2006. Tob Control 2008; Vol. 17, issue 5:332-8. [1468-3318: (Electronic)]
80. Altman DG, Bland JM. Statistics notes. Units of analysis. BMJ 1997;314:1874.
81. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1986.
82. Cahill K, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006103.pub6]
83. Cahill K, Stevens S, Perera R, Lancaster T. Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 5. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009329.pub2]
84. Critchley JA, Unal B. Health effects associated with smokeless tobacco: a systematic review. Thorax 2003;58(5):435-43.
85. DiClemente CC, Prochaska JO. Toward a comprehensive, transtheoretical model of change: stages of change and addictive behaviors. In: Miller WR, Heather N editor(s). Treating Addictive Behaviors. Applied Clinical Psychology. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1998:3-24.
86. Ebbert JO, Rowland LC, Montori VM, Vickers KS, Erwin PJ, Dale LC. Treatments for spit tobacco use: a quantitative systematic review. Addiction 2003;98:569-83.
87. England LJ, Levine RJ, Mills JL, Klebanoff MA, Yu KF, Cnattingius S. Adverse pregnancy outcomes in snuff users. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 2003;189:939-43.
88. Ernster VL, Grady DG, Greene JC, Walsh M, Robertson P, Daniels TE, et al. Smokeless tobacco use and health effects among baseball players. JAMA 1990;264(2):218-24.
89. Fiore MC, Bailey WC, Cohen SJ, Dorfman SF, Goldstein MG, Gritz ER, et al. Treating tobacco use and dependence. A clinical practice guideline. AHRQ publication No. 00-0032. Rockville, MD: US Dept of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 2000.
90. Fisher MA, Taylor GW, Tilashalski KR. Smokeless tobacco and severe active periodontal disease, NHANES III. Journal of Dental Research 2005;84(8):705-10.
91. Fleiss J. The statistical basis of meta-analysis. Statistical Methods in Medical Research 1993;2:121-45.
92. Gonzales D, Rennard S I, Nides M, Oncken C, Azoulay S, Billing C B, et al. Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006;296(1):47-55.
93. Goodman MT, Morgenstern H, Wynder EL. A case-control study of factors affecting the development of renal cell cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology 1986;124(6):926-41.
94. Gupta PC, Sreevidya S. Smokeless tobacco use, birth weight, and gestational age: population based, prospective cohort study of 1217 women in Mumbai, India. BMJ 2004;328(7455):1538.
95. Gupta PC, Subramoney S. Smokeless tobacco use and risk of stillbirth: a cohort study in Mumbai, India. Epidemiology 2006;17(1):47-51.
96. Guyatt GH, Sackett DL, Cook DJ. Users' guides to the medical literature. II. How to use an article about therapy or prevention. A. Are the results of the study valid? Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA 1993;270:2598-601.
97. Henley SJ, Thun MJ, Connell C, Calle EE. Two large prospective studies of mortality among men who use snuff or chewing tobacco (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2005;16(4):347-58.
98. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 2003;327(7414):557-60.
99. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
100. Hughes JR, Keely JP, Niaura RS, Ossip-Klein DJ, Richmond RL, Swan GE. Measures of abstinence in clinical trials: issues and recommendations. Nicotine Tob Res 2003; Vol. 5, issue 1:13-25.
101. Idris AM, Ibrahim SO, Vasstrand EN, Johannessen AC, Lillehaug JR, Magnusson B, et al. The Swedish snus and the Sudanese toombak: are they different?. Oral Oncology 1998;34(6):558-66.
102. Jorenby D E, Hays J T, Rigotti N A, Azoulay S, Watsky E J, Williams K E, et al. Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006;296(1):56-63.
103. Kostova D, Dave D. Smokeless tobacco use in India: Role of prices and advertising. Social science & medicine 2015;138:82-90.
104. Mattson ME, Winn DM. Smokeless tobacco: association with increased cancer risk. National Cancer Institute Monographs. NCI, 1989:13-16.
105. McNeill A. Harm reduction. BMJ 2004;328(7444):885-7.
106. McRobbie H, Bullen C, Hartmann-Boyce J, Hajek P. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation and reduction. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub2]
107. Muscat JE, Hoffmann D, Wynder EL. The epidemiology of renal cell carcinoma. A second look. Cancer 1995;75(10):2552-7.
108. Muscat JE, Stellman SD, Hoffmann D, Wynder EL. Smoking and pancreatic cancer in men and women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 1997;6(1):15-9.
109. National Cancer Institute and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Smokeless Tobacco and Public Health: A Global Perspective. NIH Publication No. 14-7983 2014.
110. National Institute of Health. Health Implications of Smokeless Tobacco Use. NIH Consensus Statement 1986;6:1-17.
111. National Institute of Health. National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science conference statement: tobacco use: prevention, cessation, and control. Annals of Internal Medicine 2006;145(11):839-44.
112. Norberg M, Malmberg G, Ng N, Brostrom G. Use of moist smokeless tobacco (snus) and the risk of development of alcohol dependence: a cohort study in a middle-aged population in Sweden. Drug and alcohol dependence 2015;149:151-7.
113. Rogers EM. Diffusion of Innovations. New York, NY: Free Press, 1983.
114. Rogers JD, Biener L, Clark PI. Test marketing of new smokeless tobacco products in four U.S. cities. Nicotine Tob Res 2010; Vol. 12, issue 1:69-72. [1469-994X: (Electronic)]
115. Rosenstock IM, Strecher VJ, Becker MH. Social learning theory and the Health Belief Model. Health Education Quarterly 1988;15:175-83.
116. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The NSDUH Report: Trends in Smokeless Tobacco Use and Initiation: 2002 to 2012. www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/189_NSDUH_Trends_Smokeless_Tobacco/NSDUH-SR189-SmokelessTob-2014.htm August 7, 2014.
117. Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, Mant D, Hartmann-Boyce J, Cahill K, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub4]
118. Stockwell HG, Lyman GH. Impact of smoking and smokeless tobacco on the risk of cancer of the head and neck. Head & Neck Surgery 1986;9(2):104-10.
119. West R, McNeill A, Raw M. Smokeless tobacco cessation guidelines for health professionals in England. British Dental Journal 2004;196(10):611-8.
120. Wolk R, Shamsuzzaman AS, Svatikova A, Huyber CM, Huck C, Narkiewicz K, et al. Hemodynamic and autonomic effects of smokeless tobacco in healthy young men. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2005;45(6):910-4.
121. Ebbert JO, Rowland LC, Montori V, Vickers KS, Erwin PC, Dale LC, Stead LF. Interventions for smokeless tobacco use cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004306.pub2]
122. Ebbert JO, Montori V, Vickers KS, Erwin PJ, Dale LC, Stead LF. Interventions for smokeless tobacco use cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004306.pub3]
123. Ebbert J, Montori VM, Erwin PJ, Stead LF. Interventions for smokeless tobacco use cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004306.pub4]