Patron-Client Relations as a Model of Structuring Social Exchange

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1980, Pages 42-77

  Eisenstadt, S N ^a   Roniger, Louis ^a  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84968216794     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500009154     Document Type: Article

References (47)

1. For illustrations of the conceptualization of patron-client relationships since the late sixties see for instance E. Wolf, “Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relationships in Complex Societies.” in M. Banton, ed., The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies, London, Tavistock. 1966, A.S.A. Monographs, 1-22; A. Weingrod,'Patrons, Patronage, and Political Parties,' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 7: 4 (Oct. 1968), 377-400; the issue of Sociologische Gids that deals with patron-client relations. 16: 6 (Nov.-Dec. 1969); R. Lemarchand and K. Legg, 'Political Clientelism and Development: A Preliminary Analysis,' Comparative Politics, 4: 2 (Jan. 1972), 149-78; W.T. Stuart, 'The Explanation of Patron-Client Systems: Some Structural and Ecological Perspectives,' in A. Strickon and S. Greenfield, eds. Structure and Process in Latin America: Patronage, Clientage and Power Systems, Albuquerque, New Mexico University Press, 1972, 19-42; R. Kaufman, 'The Patron-Client Concept and Macropolitics: Prospects and Problems,' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 16: 3 (July 1974), 284-308; L. Grazziano, A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Clientelism, New York, Cornell University Western Societies Program Occasional Papers, 4/1975: J.S. La Fontaine. 'Unstructured Social Relations,' The West African Journal of Sociology and Political Science, 1:1 (Oct. 1975), 51-81; E. Gellner and J. Waterbury, eds., Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies, London, Duckworth, 1977, esp. the following papers: E. Gellner, Patrons and clients,' 1-6; J. Scott, 'Patronage or exploitation?,' 21-40; A. Weingrod, 'Patronage and power,' 41-52; and J. Waterbury, 'An attempt to put patrons and clients in their place.' 329-42; J. Davis, People of the Mediterranean. An Essay in Comparative Social Anthropology, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977, ch. 4; S.W. Schmidt, L. Guasti, CH. Lande and J.C. Scott, eds., Friends, Followers, and Factions, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976.
2. These controversies are analyzed in S.N. Eisenstadt and M. Curelaru, The Form of Sociology, Paradigms and Crises, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1976, esp. chs. 8 and 9; and in idem, 'Macrosociology. Theory, Analysis and Comparative Studies,' Current Sociology, 25: 2 (1977), esp. chs. II and III.
3. For the approach of'classical' functionalist anthropology on this point. see AR. Radcliffe-Brown, 'On the Concept of Function in Social Science' and 'On Social Structure,' in idem, ed., Structure and Function in Primitive Society, London, Cohen and West, 1952, 178-204; and M. Gluckman, Custom and Conflict in Africa, Oxford, B. Blackwell, 1955. On the structural functional approach see for instance T. Parsons and E. Shils, eds., Toward a General Theory of Action, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1951; T. Parsons, The Social System, New York, The Free Press, 1964; and T. Parsons and N.J. Smelser, Economy and Society, New York, The Free Press, 1965. For the emphasis put on Int.erpersonal relations and exchange by scholars who dealt with patron-client relations see E. Wolf, 'Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relationships'; J. Boissevain, Friends of Friends, Networks, Manipulators, and Coalitions, Oxford, B. Blackwell, 1974; A. C. Mayer, 'The Significance of Ouasi-Groups in the Study of Complex Societies,' in M. Banton, ed., The Social Anth apology of Complex Societies, 1-22; M.J. Swartz, Local-Level Politics: Social and Cultural Perspectives, Chicago, Aldine, 1966, esp. 53-68, 199-204, 227-41, 243-69; J. Boissevain, 'The Place of Non-Groups in Social Sciences,' Man, N.S., 3:4 (1968), 542-56; J. Pitt-Rivers, 'The Kith and the Kin,' in J. Goody, Character of Kinship, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1973, 89-105; J. Boissevain and J.C. Mitchell, eds., Network Analysis. Studies in Social Int.eraction, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1973; CH. Lande, 'Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia: Some Observations on the Group Theory of Polities'; idem, 'Group Politics and Dyadic Politics: Notes for a Theory,' in Schmidt et al. Friends, Followers, and Factions, 506-10; A. Weingrod. 'Patronage and power,' in Gellner and Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, 41-52; and J.C. Scott, 'Political Clientelism: A Bibliographical Essay,' in Schmidt et al. Friends, Followers and Factions, 488-89.
4. CH. Landé, 'Int.roduction. The Dyadic Basis of Clientelism,' in Schmidt et al., Friends, Followers, and Factions, 13-37.
5. See for instance A. Zuckerman, Political Clienteles, S. Tarrow, From Center to Periphery. Alternative Models of National-Local Policy Impact and an Application to France and Italy, Ithaca, Cornell University Western Societies Program Occasional Papers, No. 4 (1976); K.R. Legg, Patrons, Clients and Politicians, New Perspectives on Political Clientelism; J. Waterbury, The Commander of the Faithful. The Moroccan Political Elite. A Study in Segmented Politics, London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1970; L. Grazziano, A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Clientelism; and the contributions to the Conference on Patronage held Nov. 1974 in Rome by the Center for Mediterranean Studies of the American Universities Field Staff and included in E. Gellner and J. Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, esp. E. Gellner, 'Patrons and Clients,' 1-6.
6. See for instance the bibliographical essay of J.C. Scott, in Schmidt et al., Friends, Followers, and Factions, 483-505, and the literature quoted in preceding notes.
7. G.C. Homans, Social Behaviour, lis Elementary Forms, New York, Harcourt Brace and World, 1961; P. Blau, 'Justice in Social Exchange,' Sociological Inquiry, 34:1-2 (Spring 1964), 193-206; idem, Exchange and Power in Social Life, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1964. A treatment of these different orientations in social exchange theory can be found in P. Ekeh, Social Exchange Theory, The Two Traditions, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1964. See also J.H. Turner, The Structure of Sociological Theory, Homewood, IL, The Dorsey Press, 1974,211-320.
8. E. Durkheim, On the Division of Labor in Society, New York, Macmillan. 1933. For further treatment of the precontractual elements of social life see for instance T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, esp. 301-38, 460-70 and 708-14: JA. Davis. 'Structural Balance, Mechanical Solidarity, and Int.erpersonal Relations,' American Journal of Sociology, 68:4 (Jan. 1963), 444-62; and H. Befu, 'Gift-Giving and Social Reciprocity in Japan,' France-Asie/Asia, 188 (Hiver 1966/67), 161-77. See also T. Parsons, 'Durkheim on Religion Revisited: Another Look at the Elementary Forms of Religious Life,' in C. Y. Glock and P. E. Hammond, eds. Beyond the Classics: Essays in the Scientific Study of Religion. New York, Harper and Row, 1973, 156-81.
9. M. Fortes, Kinship and the Social Order, Chicago, Aldine, 1965. On the societal significance of this aspect of reliability as connected to the 'moral' realm of kinship see M. Bloch, 'The Long Term and the Short Term: The Economic and Political Significance of Kinship,' in J. Goody, The Character of Kinship, 75-89.
10. On unconditionalities and titles see S.N. Eisenstadt, Social Differentiation and Stratification, Glenview, IL, Scott Foresman and Co., 1971, and idem, 'Prestige, Participation and Strata Formation,' in J.A. Jackson, ed., Social Stratification, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1968,62-103.
11. On public goods see A. Kuhn, The Study of Society. A Unified Approach, Homewood, IL, The Dorsey Press, 1963; M. Olson, The Logic of Collective Action, New York, Schocken, 1968; O.E. Williamson, 'Market and Hierarchies: Some Elementary Considerations,' American Economic Review, 63:2 (May 1973), 316-25; and idem, Some Notes on the Economics of Atmosphere, Fels Discussion Papers No. 29, University of Pennsylvania, The Fels Center of Government, 1973. See also S.N. Eisenstadt and M. Curelaru, The Form of Sociology. Paradigms and Crises, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1976, 364 ff.
12. On hospitality see J. Pitt-Rivers, The Stranger, the Guest and the Hostile Host: Int.roduction to the Study of the Laws of Hospitality,' in J.G. Peristiany, ed. Contributions, 13-30; and the issue of Anthropological Quarterly dealing with 'Visiting Patterns and Social Dynamics in Eastern Mediterranean Communities.' 47:1 (Jan. 1974). On ritual kinship and friendship see S.N. Eisenstadt, 'Ritualized Personal Relations.' Man, N.S., 96 (1956), 1-6: S. Gudeman, 'The Compadrazgo as a Reflection of the Natural and Spiritual Person,' The Curl Prize Essay 1971, Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute, (1971), 45-71; E.N. Goody, 'Forms of Pro-Parenthood,' in J. Goody, ed. Kinship. Harmondsworth, Penguin Modern Sociology Series, 1971, 331-15; J. Pitt-Rivers. 'Kinship: III-Pseudo-Kinship,' in Int.ernational Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 8, 406-13; and the contributions by Wolf, Foster, Ishino, Wolf and MInt.z quoted in note 1. For the structuring of societal trust as related to friendship and kinship see S.N. Eisenstadt, 'Friendship and the Structure of Trust and Solidarity in Society,' in E. Leyton, ed. The Compact. Selected Dimensions of Friendship, Newfoundland Social & Economic Papers No. 3, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1974, 138-45. The fluidity of these mechanisms in respect to their ideological conceptualization and application insocial relations is analyzed in African context by J.S. La Fontaine, 'The Mother's Brother as Patron,' Archives Européennes de Sociologie. 16(1975), 76-92; and idem, 'Unstructured Social Relations,' The West African Journal of Sociology and Political Science, 1:1 (Oct. 1975), 51-81.
13. On reciprocity and exchange in primitive societies see M. Sahlins, 'On the Sociology of Primitive Exchange,' in M. Banton. ed. The Relevance of Models for Social Anthropology, New York, Praeger, 1965, 139-236; and idem. Tribesmen, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1968. chs. 4 and 5.
14. On the pluralistic model and open market bureaucratic societies see S.N. Eisenstadt, ed., Political Sociology, 488-521; and idem, 'Bureaucracy, Bureaucratization, Markets and Power Structure,' in idem, Essays on Comparative Institutions, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1965, 177-215. On the totalitarian model see Z. Brzezinski, 'The Nature of the Soviet System,' Slavic Review, 20:3 (Oct. 1961), 354-68; R. Lowenthal, “The Logic of One-Party Rule,” in A. Brumberg, ed., Russia under Krushchev; An Anthology from Problems of Communism, New York, Praeger, 1962; T.H. Rigby, 'Traditional, Market, and Organizational Societies and the USSR,' World Politics, 16:4 (July 1964), 539-57; and J.J. Linz, 'Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes,' in F.I. Greenstein and N.W. Polsby, eds. Handbook of Political Science, Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 1975, 175-411. On caste systems see L. Dumont, Homo hierarchicus: Essai sur le système des castes, Gallimard, 1966; idem, ed., Contributions to Indian Sociology, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1966; M. Singer, 'The Social Organization of Indian Civilization,' Diogenes, 45 (WInt.er 1964), 84-119; idem, ed. Traditional India: Struc- ture and Change, Austin, American Folklore Society, University of Texas Press, 1959; M.N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India, New York, Asia Publishing House, 1962; and K. David, 'Hierarchy and Equivalence in Jaffna, North Sri Lanka: Normative Codes as Mediator,' in idem, ed., The New Wind. Changing Identities in South Asia, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1976, 179-226. On feudal models see S.N. Eisenstadt, Politicai Sociology, ch. 7. On consociational models see H. Daalder, 'The Consociational Democracy Theme,' World Politics, 26: 4 (July 1974), 604-21; A. Liphart, 'Consociational Democracy,' idem, 21 (1969); idem, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, Beverly Hills, California: University Press, 1968. See also G. Lembruch, Proporzdemokratie: Politische System und Politische Kultur in der Schweiz und Oesterreich, Tubingen, Mohr, 1968; idem, 'Konkordanzdemokratie im Politische System der Schweiz,' Vierteljahresschrift, 9:3 (1968); and idem. 'Konkordanzdemokratie im Int.ernationalen System,' Politische Viertel Jahresschrift, Vol. 10, Sonderheft; and S.N. Eisenstadt, “Bureaucracy, Bureaucratization, Markets and Power Structure.”
15. See for example A. Weingrod, 'Patrons, Patronage and Political Parties'; A. Hall, 'Concepts and Terms. Patron-Client Relationship,' Journal of Peasant Studies, 1 (1974), 506-09; L. Grazziano, A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Clientelism; J. Boissevain, 'Patrons and Brokers'; A. Blok, 'Variations in Patronage,' Sociologische Gids, 16:6 (Nov.-Dec. 1969), 365-78. For notable applications of such an approach to case studies see P.A. Allum, Politics and Society in Postwar Naples; S.F. Silverman, 'Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy,' Ethnology, 4:2 (1965), 172-89; J. Boissevain, 'When the saInt.s go marching out. Reflections on the decline of patronage in Malta,' in E. Gellner and J. Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, 81-96. Compare these definitions with E. Gellner, 'Patrons and Clients'; J. Waterbury, 'An attempt to put patrons and clients in their place'; and E. Wolf, 'Kinship, Friendship and Patron-Client Relationships.'
16. For examples of the limitation in scope and convertibility of the free flow of resources in these societies see R. Aya, The Missed Revolution. The Fate of Rural Rebels in Sicily and Southern Spain 1840-1950; J.K. Campbell, Two Case-Studies of Marketing and Patronage in Greece,' in J.G. Peristiany, ed. Contributions to Mediterranean Sociology, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1968, 143-54; S. Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey,' in Gellner and Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, 103-13. For the pressures on patronalistic arrangements in these societies see J. Boissevain, 'Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agrotown,' Int.ernational Archives of Ethnography, 50 (1966), 198-236; S. Tarrow, 'Economic Development and the Transformation of the Italian Party System,' Comparative Politics, 1:2 (Jan, 1969), 161-83; and idem, 'Local ConstraInt.s on Regional Reform. A Comparison of Italy and France,' Comparative Politics, 7:1 (Oct. 1974), 1-36. For a general treatment of this subject see S.N. Eisenstadt, 'Beyond Classical Revolution-Processes of Change and Revolution in Neo-patrimonial Societies,' in idem. Revolution and the Transformation of Societies. A Comparative Study of Civilizations, New York: The Free Press, 1978, 273-310; see also below.
17. On these aspects of patron-client relations and especially on their fragility, see among others A. Blok, The Mafia of a Sicilian Village; E. Wolf, 'On Peasant Rebellions,' Int.ernational Social Science Journal, 21:2 (1969), 286-93; E. Gellner, 'How to live in anarchy,' The Listener, 3:4 (1958), 579-83; idem, 'Patrons and Clients,' F.H. Cardoso, 'Tensoes sociais no campo e reforma agraria,' Revista brasileìra de estudos políticos, 12 (Oct. 1961), 7-26; P. Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1970; A. Hottinger, 'Zuama in Historical Perspective,' in L. Binder, ed. Politics in Lebanon, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1966, 85-105; D. Pool The Politics of Patronage: Elites and Social Structure in Iraq; and S. el-Messiri, 'The changing role of the futuwwa.'
18. On possibilities of severing the relationship, see for instance A. Blok, 'Mafia and Peasant Rebellion as Contrasting Factors in Sicilian Latifundism,' Archives Européennes de Sociologie, 10 (1969), 95-116; P. Singelmann, 'The Closing Triangle: Critical Notes on a Model for Peasant Mobilization in Latin America.' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17: 4 (Oct. 1975), 389-409. The quasi-legal or quasi-ritual fixation of incumbency to roles may provide a way of avoiding the above possibility. See E.L. Peters, 'The Tied and the Free (Lybia),' in J.G. Peristiany, ed., Contributions to Mediterranean Sociology, 167-88; and I. Ishino, 'The OyabunKobun.'
19. For these concepts see K.E. Polanyi et al., eds., Trade and Market in Early Empires, New York, The Free Press, 1957; G. Dalton, Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi, New York, Anchor Books, 1968. On the economic structure and process in these societies see S.N. Eisenstadt, Traditional Patrimonialism and Modern Neopatrimonialism, Beverly Hills, Sage Research Papers in the Social Sciences, 1973; for illustrative materials see B. Rivlin and J.S. Szyliowicz, eds., The Contemporary Middle East: Traditions and Innovations, New York, Random House, 1965, esp. 297-324, 368-74; F.H. Golay et al., eds., Underdevelopment and Economic Nationalism in Southeast Asia, Ithaca, Cornell University, Department of Asian Studies, 1967; Soedjatmoko, Economic Development as a Cultural Problem, Ithaca, Cornell University, Department of Asian Studies, 1968; T.H. Silcock, ed., Readings in Malayan Economics, Singapore, Eastern Universities Press, 1961; H. Jaguaribe, Desenvolvimento economico e desenvolvimento politico, Rio de Janeiro, Fundo de Cultura, 1962; and J. Schneider and P. Schneider, Culture and Political Economy in Western Sicilv.
20. B.F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth, New York, The Free Press, 1960, 85-114.
21. On these polities see S.N. Eisenstadt, The Political System of Empires, New York, The Free Press. 1963. esp. ch. 7. and idem. Political Sociology.
22. See I.M. Wallerstein, ed., Social Change. The Colonial Structure, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1969. S.N. Eisenstadt, Traditional Patrimonialism and Modern Neopatrimonialism contains detailed bibliographical notes on these topics. On illustrations specifically from the literature on patron-client relations, see for instance J. Schneider and P. Schneider, Culture and Political Economy in Western Sicily: F. Snowden, 'On the Social Origins of Agrarian Fascism in Italy,' Archives Européennes de Sociologie, 13:2 (1972), 268-95; J. Schneider, 'Family Patrimonies and Economic Behaviour in Western Sicily,' Anthropological Quarterly, 42:3 (Sept. 1969), 109-29; H. Hess, Mafia and Mafiosi; E. Feder, Violencia y despojo del campesino: Ellatifundismo en América Latina, Mexico, Siglo xxi, 1975 (1971); R. Stavenhagen, 'Social Aspects of Agrarian Structure in Mexico,' Social Research, 33:3 (1966), 463-85; M. Rossi-Doria, 'The Land Tenure System and Class in Southern Italy.'
23. P.T. Bauer and B.S. Yamey, The Economics of Underdeveloped Countries, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1957; CS. Belshaw, 'Approaches to Articulation in the Economy,' in idem, Traditional Exchange and Modern Markets, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1965, 84-107. See also S.N. Eisenstadt, Traditional Patrimonialism and Modern Neopatrimonialism.
24. originally by J.H. Boeke, Tropisch-Koloniale Staathuishoudkunde, 1910. For its treatment see J.S. Furnivall, Netherlands India. A Study of Plural Economy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1939; J.H. Boeke, The Structure of the Netherlands Indian Economy, New York, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1942; and idem, Economics and Economic Policy of Dual Societies. New York, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1953. On patterns of dependency in some of these societies see C. Furtado, Obstacles to the Development of Latin America, New York, Anchor Books, 1970; J.S. Furnivall, Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1948; V. Turner, ed., Colonization in Africa 1870-1960, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971; S.N. Eisenstadt, Essays on Social and Political Aspects of Economic Development, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1958; S. Schwartzman, Sao Paulo e o Estado Nacional, Sao Paulo, DIFEL, 1975; P. Schneider, 'Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Western Sicily'; L. Guasti, 'Peru: Clientelism and Int.ernal Control,' in Schmidt et al., Friends, Followers and Factions, 422-38; B. Stallings, Economic Dependency in Africa and Latin America, Beverly Hills, Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics, 1972.
25. This point. can be found in E. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society: E. Wolf, Peasants, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1966; J. Schneider, Of Vigilance and Virgins'; H. Alavi, 'Peasant Classes and Primordial Loyalties,' Journal of Peasant Studies, 1:1 (Oct. 1973), 23-62; J.D. Powell, 'Peasant Society and Clientelism'; A. Blok, 'Coalitions in Sicilian Peasant Society,' in J. Boissevain and C. Mitchell, eds., Network Analysis Studies in Human Int.eraction, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1973,151-66; M. Johnson, 'Political bosses and their gangs'; and F. Lynch, Four Readings in Philippine Values, Quezon City, Institute of Philippine Culture Papers No. 2, Ateneo de Manila Press, 1964.
26. On the distinction between strong and weak centers see S.N. Eisenstadt, Political Sociology; idem, Social Differentiation and Stratification, esp. ch. 8; and idem, Traditional Patrimonialism and Modern Neopatrimonialism. Further elaboration can be found in idem. Revolution and the Transformation of Societies, esp. chs. IV, V. The structurally weak character of those centers was a recurrent theme in the literature. See for instance S. Tarrow, From Center to Periphery, idem, 'Local ConstraInt.s'; Silverman, 'Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships'; CH. Lande, 'Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia'; and J.G. Scott, 'Patron-Client Politics and Political Change.' On the symbolic institutional characteristics of center and periphery see G. Roth, 'Personal Rulership, Patrimonialism and Empire-Building in the New States,' World Politics, 20:2 (Jan. 1968), 194-206; A.R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The Party States of West Africa 1870-1960, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971;F.W. Riggs, Thailand: The Modernization of a Bureaucratic Polity, Honolulu, East West Center Press, 1966; Thaung, 'Burmese Kinship in Theory and Practice under the Reign of King Mindon,' Journal of the Burma Research Society, 42:2 (1959), 171-85; B. Schrieke, Indonesian Sociological Studies, The Hague-Bandung, W. Van Hoeve, 1957; J.C. Van Lear, Indonesian Trade and Society, The Hague-Bandung, W. Van Hoeve, 1955, 1-221; J.K. Whitmore, Vietnamese Adaptations of Chinese Government Structure in the Fifteenth Century, New Haven, Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1970; R. Heine-Geldern, 'Conception of State and Kinship in Southeast Asia.' Southeast Asian Program Data paper No 18, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1956, 1-13; L. Hanke, ed., History of Latin American Civilization, 2 vols., Boston, Little Brown, 1967; M. Sarfatti, Spanish Bureaucratic Patrimonialism in America, Berkeley, University of California Press, Institute of Int.ernational Studies, Politics of Modernization Series No. 1, 1966; C.H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, New York, Oxford University Press, 1947.
27. See for instance C.H. Landé,'Networks and Groups'; J. Boissevain, 'Poverty and Polities'; D. Gilmore, 'Class, Culture and Community Size in Spain'; D. Meertens, 'South from Madrid: Regional Elites and Resistance,' in J. Boissevain and J. Friedl, eds., Beyond the Community: Social Process in Europe, European-Mediterranean Study Group of the University of Amsterdam, 1975, 65-74.
28. See for example J.D. Powell. 'Peasant Society and Clientelistic Politics,' 411-25; R. Aya, The Missed Revolution, 22-23; J. Waterbury, The Commander of the Faithful; S. Tarrow, Peasant Communism in Southern Italy. In Sicily and other regions the overlapping and Int.ermingling of occupational roles and identities can hamper the formation of broad categorical commitments. For Sicily see J. Schneider, 'Family Patrimonies and Economic Behaviour in Western Sicily,' and A. Blok, The Mafia of a Sicilian Village 1860-1960, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1974. See also Note 33.
29. On bilateral kinship and its societal implications see R.H. Pehrson, 'Bilateral Kin Groupings as a Structural Type,' Journal of East Asiatic Studies, 3 (1954), 199-202; W. Davenport, 'Nonunilineal Descent and Descent Groups,' American Anthropologist, 61 (1959), 557-72; O. Blehr, 'Action Groups in a Society with Bilateral Kinship. A Case Study of the Faroe Islands,' Ethnology, 3:3 (July 1963), 269-75; J. Pitt-Rivers, 'The Kith and the Kin'; C.H. Lande,“Kinship and Politics in Pre-Modern and Nonwestern Societies,” in J. T. McAlister Jr., ed., Southeast Asia: The Politics of National Int.egration, New York, Random House, 1973, 219-33; and idem, 'Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia.' On the structure of kinship in the clientelistic societies see E. Swanson, Rules of Descent. Studies in the Sociology of Parentage, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, 1969; G.P. Murdock, 'Cognatic Forms of Social Organizations,' in idem, ed., Social Structure in Southeast Asia, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, No. 29 (1960), 1-14; M.M. Khaing, Burmese Family, Bombay, Longmans Green, 1947; E. Wolf, 'Society and Symbols in Latin Europe and the Islamic Near East,' Anthropological Quarterly, 42:3 (July 1969), 287-301; L.W. Moss and W.H. Thompson, 'The South Italian Family: Literature and Observations,' Human Organization, 18: 1 (1959), 35-41; O. Lewis, The Children of Sanchez: An Autobiography of a Mexican Family, New York, Random House, 1961.
30. To be found for instance in Argentina. See A. Strickon, 'Class and Kinship in Argentina,' Ethnology, 1:4 (1962), 500-15.
31. Good examples of this pattern of segregation can be found in E. Friedl, Vassilika, A Village in Modern Greece, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962; J. Pitt-Rivers, The People of the Sierra, and J.K. Campbell, Honour, Family and Patronage. See also J. Caro Baroja, 'El sociocentrismo de los pueblos españoles,' Separata del homenaje a F. Krueger, Madrid-Mendoza, U.N.C., Tomo 2, 1954. For a criticism see D. Gilmore, 'Class, Culture and Community Size in Spain.' On the weakness of categorial organization see among many others C.H. Lande, 'Group Politics and Dyadic Politics: Notes for a Theory.' For the presence of shifting allegiances in the political sphere see for instance A. Zuckerman, Political Clienteles in Power.
32. See on this V. Lemieux, Le Patronage politique. Une étude comparative, Québec, Les Presses de L'Université Laval, 1977; E. Wolf, Peasants, 81-95; J. Boissevain, 'Patrons as Brokers,' Sociologische Gids, 16:6 (1969), 379-86; J. Davis, People of the Mediterranean, ch. 4; K.R. Legg, Patrons, Clients and Politicians; A. Rassman, 'Al-Taba'yya: Power, Patronage and Marginal Groups in Northern Iraq,' in E. Gellner and J. Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, 157-66; R. Sandbrook, 'Patrons, Clients, and Factions'; R. Lemarchand, 'Political Exchange, Clientelism and Development in Tropical Africa,' Culture et Développement, 4:3 (1972), Bruxelles, 483-516; as well as, among a profuse literature, the works of Hess, Zuckerman, Boissevain and Blok quoted elsewhere.
33. E. Wolf, 'Society and Symbols in Latin Europe and in the Islamic Middle East: Some Comparisons,' Anthropological Quarterly, 42: 3 (July 1969), 287-301.
34. For a broad treatment of these concepts see S.N. Eisenstadt and M. Curelaru, Macro-Sociology; idem, The Form of Sociology; and S.N. Eisenstadt, 'The Implications of Weber's Sociology of Religion for Understanding Processes of Change in Contemporary Non-Euço-pean Societies and Civilizations,' in C.Y. Glock and P.E. Hammond, eds., Beyond the Classics, 131-55. On the above conceptions see S.A. Hahha and G.H. Gardner, eds., Arab Socialism, London, E.J. Briell, 1969; A.J.D. Matz, 'The Dynamics of Change in Latin America.' Journal of Int.er-American Studies, 9:1 (Jan. 1966), 66-76; CF. Gallagher, 'The Shaping of the Spanish Int.ellectual Tradition,' American Universities Field Staff Reports, 9:8 (1976); D.E. Worcester, 'The Spanish-American Past. Enemy of Change,' Journal of Int.er-American Studies, 11:1 (Jan. 1969), 66-75; K. Silvert, 'Latin America and its Alternative Future,' Int.ernational Journal, 24:3 (Summer 1969), 403-44; H.D. Evers, Kulturwandel in Ceylon, Baden-Baden, Verlag Lutzeyer, 1964; R. Sarkisyanz, Buddhist Backgrounds of the Burmese Revolution, The Hague, M. Nijhoff, 1965; CF. Gallagher, 'Contemporary Islam; A Frontier of Communalism. Aspects of Islam in Malaysia.' American Universities Field Staff Reports, Southeast Asia Series, 14:10 (1966); J. Peacock, Rites of Modernization; Symbols and Social Aspects of Indonesian Proletarian Drama, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1968; and R.N. Milton, 'The Basic Malay House,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Malay Branch, 29:3 (1965), 145-55.
35. See on this in greater detail S.N. Eisenstadt, Revolution and the Transformation of Societies, esp. chs. IV, V, IX.
36. R. Paine, “A Theory of Patronage,” in idem, ed., Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic, 3-21.
37. R. Paine, “A Theory of Patronage,” in idem, ed., Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic, 3-21.
38. R. Paine, “A Theory of Patronage,” in idem, ed., Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic, 3-21.
39. On ritual friendship see Notes 1 and 18. On the giri system see H. Befu, 'Gift Giving and Social Reciprocity in Japan'; and C. Nakane, Japanese Society. On 'pure' friendship, see S.N. Eisenstadt, 'Friendship and the Structure of Trust and Solidarity in Society'; R. Paine, 'Anthropological Approaches to Friendship,' in E. Leyton, ed., The Compact, 1-14; and J.S. La Fontaine, 'Unstructured Social Relations.'
40. An example of the coercive trend can be found in S. El-Messiri, 'The changing role of the futuwwa.' On the second possibility see among others D. Gilmore, 'Patronage and Class Conflict in Southern Spain,' Man, N.S., 12: 3-4 (1978), 446-58.
41. On machine politics in the U.S. see R. Wolfinger and J. Field, 'Political Ethos and the Structure of City Government,' American Political Science Review, 60: 2 (1966), 306-26; E. Banfield, ed., Urban Government, New York, The Free Press, 1969, esp. ch. 3 and 5, 165-265 and 365-425; and R. Wolfinger, 'Why Political Machines.' On Western Europe see M. Bax, Harpstrings and confessions: An anthropological study of politics in Rural Ireland, Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam, 1973; P.G. Richards, Patronage in British Government, London, Allen and Unwin, 1963; T. Zeldin, The Political System of Napoleon III, London, Macmillan, 1958. For the Soviet Union see P. Frank, 'How to get on in the Soviet Union,' New Society, 5 June 1969, 867-68; and G. Ionescu, 'Patronage under communism,' in E. Gellner and J. Waterbury, Patrons and Clients, 97-102. On China see K. E. Folsom, Friends, Guests, and Colleagues: The Mu-fu System in Late Ch 'ing Period, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1968; and M. Fried, Fabric of Chinese Society, New York, Praeger, 1973. For the Canadian Arctic see R. Paine, ed., Patrons and Brokers in the East Arctic. For the jajmani system see for instance J. Breman, Patronage and Exploitation, Changing Agrarian Relations in South Gujarat, India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1974.
42. See for instance A. Heidenheimer, ed., Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
43. On the patterns of revolt see N. Miller and R. Aya, eds., National Liberation: Revolution in the Third World, New York, Free Press, 1971; K. Cough and H. P. Sharma, eds., Imperialism and Revolution in South Asia, New York, Monthly Review Press, 1973; R. L.
44. Solomon, 'Saya San and the Burmese Rebellion,' Modern Asian Studies, 3:3 (1969), 209-33. G. Gobron, History and Philosophy of Caodaism, Paris, Dervy, 1949; G. Goulet, Les sociétés secretes en terre d'Annam, Saigon, C. Ardin, 1926; M. C. Guerrero, 'The Colorum Uprisings 1924-1931,' Asian Studies, 5:1 (1967), 65-78; S. Kartodiridjo, The Peasants' Revolt ofBanten in 1888, Its Conditions, Course, and Sequel: A Case Study of Social Movements in Indonesia, The Hague, M. Nijhoff, 1966; H. J. Benda and L. Castles, The Samin Movement,' Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 125:3 (1969), 207-∗0; H. J. Benda and R. McVey, eds., The Communist Uprisings of1926-1927 in Indonesia: Key Documents, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1960; J. Migdal, Peasants, Politics and Revolution, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1974; and S. R. Ross, ed., Is the Mexican Revolution Dead?, New York, Knopf, 1966. See also below.
45. E. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels, Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971 (1959); idem, Bandits, London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Cf. A. Blok, On Brigandage, with Special Reference to Peasant Mobilization.' Socioloeische Gids, 18:2 (1971). 208-16.
46. M. I. Pereira de Queiroz, 'Brazilian Messianic Movements: A Help or a Hindrance to “Participation”?,' Bulletin of the Int.ernational Institute for Labor Studies, 1 (1970), 93-121; idem, La 'guerre saInt.e' au Brésil: Le mouvement messianique du 'contestado,' Sào Paulo, University of Sào Paulo, Arts and Sciences Bulletin No. 187. Sociologia I, 5 (1957); idem, Messianismo e confitto social: A guerra sertaneja do contestado, 1912-1916, Rio de Janeiro, Civilizacào brasileira, 1966; H. J. Benda, 'Peasant Movements in Colonial Southeast Asia,' Asian Studies, 3:3 (1965), 420-34; F. Hills, 'Millenarian Machines in South Vietnam,' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 13:3 (July 1971), 325-50; B. Dahm, 'Leadership and Mass Response in Java, Burma and Vietnam,' Paper presented to the Int.ernational Congress of Orientalists, Canberra, Jan. 1971, on file at Kiel University; M. Osborne, Region of Revolt: Focus on Southeast Asia, Oxford, Pergamon, 1970; and J. van der Kroef, 'Javanese Messianic Expectations: Their Origin and Cultural Context,' Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1:4 (Oct. 1959), 299-323.
47. J. C. Scott, 'The Erosion of Patron-Client Bonds and Social Change in Rural Southeast Asia,' Journal of Asian Studies, 32: 1 (Nov. 1972), 5-37.