Cetacean noise criteria revisited in the light of proposed exposure limits for harbour porpoises

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Volumn 90, Issue 1-2, 2015, Pages 196-208

  Tougaard, Jakob ^a   Wright, Andrew J ^a,b   Madsen, Peter T ^a,c  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY   (Denmark)

^b GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c MURDOCH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Behavioural response; Frequency weighting; Hearing; Impact assessment; Temporary threshold shift; Underwater noise

Indexed keywords

ACOUSTICS; AUDITION; BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; DOLPHINS (STRUCTURES); MAMMALS;

BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE; FREQUENCY-WEIGHTING; IMPACT ASSESSMENTS; TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFTS; UNDERWATER NOISE;

ACOUSTIC NOISE;

ASSESSMENT METHOD; BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE; DOLPHIN; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; HEARING; LIGHT; NOISE POLLUTION; PORPOISE; SOUND PROPAGATION; UNDERWATER NOISE;

ARTICLE; AUDITORY RESPONSE; BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN; CETACEA; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; LOUDNESS; NOISE INJURY; NOISE MEASUREMENT; NOISE POLLUTION; NOISE STANDARD; NONHUMAN; PORPOISE; SEAL; SOUND ANALYSIS; SOUND INTENSITY; SOUND LEVEL MEASUREMENT; STIMULUS RESPONSE;

CETACEA; NEOPHOCAENA PHOCAENOIDES; PHOCOENIDAE; TURSIOPS;

EID: 84964240850     PISSN: 0025326X     EISSN: 18793363     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.051     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Ahroon W.A., Hamernik R.P., Lei S.-F. The effects of reverberant blast waves on the auditory system. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1996, 100:2247-2257. 10.1121/1.417934
2. Anonymous ANSI S1.4-1983 Specification for Sound Level Meters 1983, Americal Institute of Physics, New York.
3. Anonymous ANSI S1.42-2001 Design response of weighting networks for acoustical measurements 2001, American Institute of Physics, New York.
4. Au W.W.L., Moore P.W.B. Receiving beam patterns and directivity indicies of the atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1984, 75:255-262. 10.1121/1.390403
5. Bailey H., Senior B., Simmons D., Rusin J., Picken G., Thompson P.M. Assessing underwater noise levels during pile-driving at an offshore windfarm and its potential effects on marine mammals. Mar. Poll. Bull. 2010, 60:888-897. 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.01.003
6. Barlow J., Cameron G.A. Field experiments show that acoustic pingers reduce marine mammal bycatch in the California drift gill net fishery. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 2003, 19:265-283. 10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x
7. Bateson M. Environmental noise and decision making possible implications of increases in anthropogenic noise for information processing in marine mammals. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20:169-178.
8. Beale C.M. The behavioral ecology of disturbance responses. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20:111-120.
9. Beale C.M., Monaghan P. Behavioural responses to human disturbance: a matter of choice?. Anim. Behav. 2004, 68:1065-1069. 10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.07.002
10. Bejder L., Samuels A., Whitehead H., Gales N. Interpreting short-term behavioural responses to disturbance within a longitudinal perspective. Anim. Behav. 2006, 72:1149-1158. 10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.04.003
11. Berggren, P., Carlström, J., Tregenza, N., 2002. Mitigation of small cetacean bycatch. Evaluation of acoustic alarms (MISNET). Study contract 00/031. Final Report to the European Commission, Univ. of Stockholm.
12. Betke K., Matuschek R. Messungen von Unterwasserschall beim Bau der Windenergieanlagen im Offshore-Testfeld "alpha ventus" 2010, ITAP, Hamburg.
13. Brandt M.J., Diederichs A., Betke K., Nehls G. Responses of harbour porpoises to pile driving at the Horns Rev II offshore wind farm in the Danish North Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2011, 421:205-216. 10.3354/meps08888
14. Brandt M.J., Höschle C., Diederichs A., Betke K., Matuschek R., Witte S., Nehls G. Far-reaching effects of a seal scarer on harbour porpoises, Phocoena phocoena. Aquat. Cons. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 2012, 23:222-232. 10.1002/aqc.2311
15. Brandt M.J., Höschle C., Diederichs A., Betke K., Matuschek R., Nehls G. Seal scarers as a tool to deter harbour porpoises from offshore construction sites. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2013, 475:291-302. 10.3354/meps10100
16. Carlström J., Berggren P., Tregenza N.J.C. Spatial and temporal impact of pingers on porpoises. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2009, 66:72-82. 10.1139/F08-186
17. Clark C.W., Ellison W.T., Southall B.L., Hatch L., Van Parijs S.M., Frankel A., Ponirakis D. Acoustic masking in marine ecosystmes: intuitions, analysis, and implication. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2009, 395:201-222. 10.3354/meps08402
18. Culik B., Koschinski S., Tregenza N., Ellis G.M. Reactions of harbor porpoises Phocoena phocoena and herring Clupea harengus to acoustic alarms. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2001, 211:255-260. 10.3354/meps211255
19. Dähne M., Gilles A., Lucke K., Peschko V., Adler S., Krügel K., Sundermeyer J., Siebert U. Effects of pile-driving on harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) at the first offshore wind farm in Germany. Environ. Res. Lett. 2013, 8:025002. 10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/025002
20. DeRuiter S.L., Hansen M., Koopman H.N., Westgate A.J., Tyack P., Madsen P.T. Propagation of narrow-band-high-frequency clicks: measured and modeled transmission loss of porpoise-like clicks in porpoise habitats. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2010, 127:560-567. 10.1121/1.3257203
21. Ellison W.T., Southall B.L., Clark C.W., Frankel A.S. A new context-based approach to assess marine mammal behavioral responses to antropogenic sounds. Cons. Biol. 2011, 26:21-28. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01803.x
22. Erbe C., Farmer D.M. Masked hearing thresholds of a beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) in icebreaker noise. Deep-Sea Res. Part II 1998, 45:1373-1388. 10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00027-7
23. European Commission, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora.
24. European Commission, 2000. Directive 2000/14/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 May 2000 on the Approximation of the Laws of the Member States Relating to the Noise Emission in the Environment by Equipment for use Outdoors.
25. European Commission, 2002. Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 Relating to the Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise.
26. European Commission, 2008. Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Marine Environmental Policy.
27. Fair P.A., Becker P.R. Reviews of stress in marine mammals. J. Aquat. Ecosyst. Stress Recov. 2000, 7:335-354.
28. Finneran J.J. Auditory Weighting Functions and Frequency-dependent Effects of Sound in Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) 2008, SPAWAR Systems Center Pacific, San Diego, California.
29. Finneran J.J., Jenkins A.K. Criteria and Thresholds for US Navy Acoustic and Explosive Effects Analysis 2012, SPAWAR Systems Center Pacific, San Diego, California.
30. Finneran J.J., Schlundt C.E. Frequency-dependent and longitudinal changes in noise-induced hearing loss in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) (L). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2010, 128:567-570. 10.1121/1.3458814
31. Finneran J.J., Schlundt C.E. Effects of fatiguing tone frequency on temporary threshold shift in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2013, 133:1819-1826. 10.1121/1.4776211
32. Finneran J.J., Schlundt C.E., Dear R., Carder D., Ridgway S.H. Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds in odontocetes after exposure to single underwater impulses from a seismic watergun. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2002, 111:2929-2940. 10.1121/1.1479150
33. Götz, T., Janik, V.M., 2011. Repeated elicitation of the acoustic startle reflex leads to sensitisation in subsequent avoidance behaviour and induces fear conditioning. BMC Neuroscience 12, 1-12. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2202/12/30.
34. Gray H., Waerebeek K.V. Postural instability and akinesia in a pantropical spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata, in proximity to operating airguns of a geophysical seismic vessel. J. Nat. Conserv. 2011, 19:363-367. 10.1016/j.jnc.2011.06.005
35. Green D.M., Birdsall T.G., Tanner W.P. Signal detection as a function of signal intensity and duration. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1957, 29:523-531. 10.1121/1.1908951
36. Hammond P.S., Berggren P., Benke H., Borchers D.L., Collet A., Heide-Jørgensen M.-P., Heimlich S., Hiby A.R., Leopold M.F., Øien N. Abundance of harbour porpoise and other cetaceans in the North Sea and adjacent waters. J. Appl. Ecol. 2002, 39:361-376. 10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00713.x
37. Hammond P.S., Macleod K., Berggren P., Borchers D.L., Burt L., Canadas A., Desportes G., Donovan G.P., Gilles A., Gillespie D., Gordon J., Hiby L., Kuklik I., Leaper R., Lehnert K., Leopold M., Lovell P., Øien N., Paxton C.G.M., Ridoux V., Rogan E., Samarra F., Scheidat M., Sequeira M., Siebert U., Skov H., Swift R., Tasker M.L., Teilmann J., Van Canneyt O., Veen J.V.D. Cetacean abundance and distribution in European Atlantic shelf waters to inform conservation and management. Biol. Conserv. 2013, 164:107-122. 10.1016/j.biocon.2013.04.010
38. Hansen M., Wahlberg M., Madsen P.T. Low-frequency components in harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) clicks: communication signal, by-products, or artifacts?. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2008, 124:4059-4068. 10.1121/1.2945154
39. Hermannsen L., Beedholm K., Tougaard J., Madsen P.T. High frequency components of ship noise in shallow water with a discussion of implications for harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2014, 136:1640-1653. 10.1121/1.4893908
40. Jensen F.H., Bejder L., Wahlberg M., Soto N.A., Johnson M., Madsen P.T. Vessel noise effects on delphinid communication. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2009, 395:161-175. 10.3354/meps08204
41. Johnson C.S. Masked tonal thresholds in the bottlenosed porpoise. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1968, 44:965-967. 10.1121/1.1911236
42. Johnson C.S. Relation between absolute threshold and duration-of-tone pulses in the bottlenosed porpoise. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1968, 43:757-763. 10.1121/1.1910893
43. Johnson C.S. Hearing thresholds for periodic 60-kHz tone pulses in the beluga whale. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1991, 89:2996-3001. 10.1121/1.400736
44. Johnson M., Soto N.A., Madsen P.T. Studying the behaviour and sensory ecology of marine mammals using acoustic recording tags: a review. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2009, 395:55-73.
45. Johnston D.W. The effect of acoustic harassment devices in harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Biol. Conserv. 2002, 108:113-118. 10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00099-X
46. Kastelein R.A., Bunskoek P., Hagedoorn M., Au W.W.L., Haan D.d. Audiogram of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) measured with narrow-band frequency modulated signals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2002, 112:334-344. 10.1121/1.1480835
47. Kastelein R.A., Wensveen P.J., Hoek L., Verboom W.C., Terhune J.M. Underwater detection of tonal signals between 0.125 and 100 kHz by harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2009, 125:1222-1229. 10.1121/1.3132522
48. Kastelein R.A., Hoek L., de Jong C.A.F., Wensveen P.J. The effect of signal duration on the underwater detection thresholds of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) for single frequency-modulated tonal signals between 0.25 and 160kHz. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2010, 128:3211-3222. 10.1121/1.3493435
49. Kastelein R.A., Gransier R., Hoek L., Olthuis J. Temporary threshold shifts and recovery in a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) after octave-band noise at 4kHz. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2012, 132:3525-3537. 10.1121/1.4757641
50. Kastelein R.A., Gransier R., Hoek L., Rambags M. Hearing frequency thresholds of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) temporarily affected by a continuous 1 1.5kHz tone. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2013, 134:2286-2292. 10.1121/1.4816405
51. Kastelein R.A., Hoek L., Gransier R., Rambags M., Clayes N. Effect of level, duration, and inter-pulse interval of 1-2kHz sonar signal exposures on harbor porpoise hearing. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2014, 136:412-422. 10.1121/1.4883596
52. Kujawa S.G., Liberman M.C. Adding insult to injury: cochlear nerve degeneration after "temporary" noise-induced hearing loss. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:14077-14085. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2845-09.2009
53. Lucke K., Siebert U., Lepper P.A., Blanchet M.-A. Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds in a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) after exposure to seismic airgun stimuli. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2009, 125:4060-4070. 10.1121/1.3117443
54. Lusseau D., Bejder L. The long-term consequences of short-term responses to disturbance: experiences from whalewatching impact assessment. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20:228-236.
55. Lusseau, D., Christiansen, F., Harwood, J., Mendes, S., Thompson, P.M., Smith, K., Hastie, G.D., 2012. Assessing the risks to marine mammal populations from renewable energy devices - an interim approach. Final Workshop Report. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, the Countryside Council for Wales and NERC Knowledge Exchange Programme.
56. Madsen P.T. Marine mammals and noise: problems with root mean square sound pressure levels for transients. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2005, 117:3952-3957. 10.1121/1.1921508
57. Madsen P.T., Johnson M., Miller P.J.O., Aguilar Soto N., Lynch J., Tyack P. Quantitative measures of air-gun pulses recorded on sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) using acoustic tags during controlled exposure experiments. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2006, 120:2366-2379. 10.1121/1.2229287
58. Meloni T., Rosenheck A. Choice of frequency weighting for the evaluation of weapon noise. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1995, 97:3636-3641. 10.1121/1.412410
59. Miller P.J.O., Johnson M.P., Madsen P.T., Biassoni N., Quero M., Tyack P.L. Using at-sea experiments to study the effects of airguns on the foraging behavior of sperm whales in the Gulf of Mexico. Deep Sea Res. Part I 2009, 56:1168-1181. 10.1016/j.dsr.2009.02.008
60. Møhl B. Marine mammals and noise. Arctic Seas Bull. 1980, 2:1-2.
61. Møhl, B., 1981. Masking effects of noise; their distribution in time and space. The question of sound from icebreaker operations. In: Peterson, N.M,. (Ed.), The Question of Sound from Icebreaker Operations. Proceedings of a Workshop 23 and 24 February 1981. Arctic Pilot Project, Toronto, pp. 259-268.
62. Møhl B., Andersen S. Echolocation: high-frequency component in the click of the harbour porpoise (Phocoena ph. L). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1973, 54:1368-1372. 10.1121/1.1914435
63. Montague W.E., Strickland J.F. Sensitivity of the water-immersed ear to high-and low-level tones. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1961, 33:1376-1381. 10.1121/1.1908443
64. Nabe-Nielsen J., Sibly R.M., Tougaard J., Teilmann J., Sveegaard S. Effects of noise and by-catch on a Danish harbour porpoise population. Ecol. Modell. 2013, 272:242-251. 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2013.09.025
65. Nachtigall P.E., Pawloski D.A., Au W.W.L. Temporary threshold shifts and recovery following noise exposure in the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2003, 113:3425-3429. 10.1121/1.1570438
66. Nachtigall P.E., Supin A.Y., Pawloski J.L., Au W.W.L. Temporary threshold shifts after noise exposure in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) measured using evoked auditory potenmtials. Mar. Mammal. Sci. 2004, 20:673-687. 10.1111/j.1748-7692.2004.tb01187.x
67. National Research Council Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals 2003, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
68. National Research Council Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects 2005, National Academic Press, Washington, DC.
69. Nielsen T.P., Wahlberg M., Heikkilä S., Jensen M., Sabinsky P., Dabelsteen T. Swimming patterns of wild harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena show detection and avoidance of gillnets at very long ranges. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2012, 453:241-248. 10.3354/meps09630
70. NMFS Taking marine mammals incidental to conducting oil and gas exploration activities in the Gulf of Mexico. Fed. Reg. 2003, 68:9991-9996.
71. NOAA Draft Guidance for Assessing the Effects of Anthropogenic Sound ON Marine Mammals - Acoustic Threshold Levels for Onset of Permanent and Temporary Threshold Shifts 2013, US Office of Commerce, Maryland.
72. Nowacek D.P., Thorne L.H., Johnston D.W., Tyack P.L. Responses of cetaceans to anthropogenic noise. Mamm. Rev. 2007, 37:81-115. 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2007.00104.x
73. Olesiuk P.F., Nichol L.M., Sowden M.J., Ford J.K.B. Effect of the sound generated by an acoustic harassment device on the relative abundance and distribution of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) in Retreat Passage, Britich Columbia. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 2002, 18:843-862. 10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01077.x
74. Parker D.E., Tubbs R.L., Littlefield V.M. Visual-field displacements in human beings evoked by acoustical transients. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1978, 63:1912-1918. 10.1121/1.381894
75. Plomp R., Bouman A. Relation between hearing threshold and duration for tone pulses. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1959, 31:749-758. 10.1121/1.1907781
76. Popov V.V., Supin A.Y., Wang D., Wang K. Nonconstant quality of auditory filters in the porpoises, Phocoena phocoena and Neophocoena phocaenoides (Cetacea, Phocoenidae). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2006, 119:3173-3180. 10.1121/1.2184290
77. Popov V.V., Supin A.Y., Wang D., Wang K., Dong L., Wang S. Noise-induced temporary threshold shift and recovery in Yangtze finless porpoises Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaorientalis. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2011, 130:574-584. 10.1121/1.3596470
78. Popov V.V., Supin A.Y., Rozhnov V.V., Nechaev D.I., Sysueva E.V. The limits of applicability of the sound exposure level (SEL) metric to temporal threshold shifts (TTS) in beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas. J. Exp. Biol. 2014, 217:1804-1810. 10.1242/jeb.098814
79. Richardson W.J., Greene C.R., Malme C.I., Thomson D.H. Marine Mammals and Noise 1995, Academic Press, San Diego.
80. Schlundt C.E., Finneran J.J., Carder D., Ridgway S.H. Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, and white whales, Delphinapterus leucas, after exposure to intense tones. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2000, 107:3496-3508. 10.1121/1.429420
81. Simmonds M.P., Dolman S.J., Jasny M., Parsons E.C.M., Weilgart L., Wright A.J., Leaper R. Marine noise pollution - increasing recognition but need for more practical action. J. Ocean Technol. 2014, 9:70-90.
82. Southall B.L., Bowles A.E., Ellison W.T., Finneran J., Gentry R., Green C.R., Kastak C.R., Ketten D.R., Miller J.H., Nachtigall P.E., Richardson W.J., Thomas J.A., Tyack P.L. Marine mammal noise exposure criteria. Aquat. Mamm. 2007, 33:411-521. 10.1578/AM.33.4.2007.411
83. Steevens C.C., Russell K.L., Knafelc M.E., Smith P.F., Hopkins E.W., Clark J.B. Noise induced neurologic disturbances in divers exposed to intense water-borne sound: two case reports. Unders. Hyperb. Med. 1999, 26:261-265. http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2333
84. Szymanski M.D., Bain D.E., Kiehl K., Pennington S., Wong S., Henry K.R. Killer whale (Orcinus orca) hearing: Auditory brainstem response and behavioral audiograms. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1999, 106:1134-1141. 10.1121/1.427121
85. Terhune J.M. A practical weighting function for harbour porpoises underwater sound level measurements (L). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2013, 134:2405-2408. 10.1121/1.4816556
86. Thompson P.M., Lusseau D., Barton T., Simmons D., Rusin J., Bailey H. Assessing the responses of coastal cetaceans to the construction of offshore wind turbines. Mar. Poll. Bull. 2010, 60:1200-1208. 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.03.030
87. Todd S., Stevick P., Lien J., Marques F., Ketten D. Behavioural effects to underwater explosions in Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). Can. J. Zool. 1996, 74:1661-1672. 10.1139/z96-184
88. Tougaard J., Carstensen J., Teilmann J., Skov H., Rasmussen P. Pile driving zone of responsiveness extends beyond 20 km for harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena, (L.)). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2009, 126:11-14. 10.1121/1.3132523
89. Tougaard J., Kyhn L.A., Amundin M., Wennerberg D., Bordin C. Behavioral reactions of harbor porpoise to pile-driving noise. Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life 2012, 277-280. Springer, New York, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7311-5_61. A.N. Popper, A.D. Hawkins (Eds.).
90. Vos J. A- and C-weighted sound levels as predictors of the annoyance caused by shooting sounds, for various facade attenuation types. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2003, 113:336-347. 10.1121/1.1527957
91. Weilgart L.S. The need for precaution in the regulation and management of undersea noise. J. Int. Wildlife Law Pol. 2007, 10:247-253. 10.1080/13880290701769312
92. Wensveen P.J., Huijser L.A.E., Hoek L., Kastelein R.A. Equal latency contours and auditory weighting functions for the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). J. Exp. Biol. 2014, 217:359-369. 10.1242/jeb.091983
93. Williams R., Lusseau D., Hammond P.S. Estimating relative energetic costs of human disturbance to killer whales (Orcinus orca). Biol. Conserv. 2006, 133:301-311. 10.1016/j.biocon.2006.06.010
94. Wright A.J., Soto N.A., Baldwin A., Bateson M., Beale C., Clark C., Deak T., Edwards E., Fernandez A., Godinho A., Hatch L., Kakuschke A., Lusseau D., Martineau D., Romero L., Weilgart L., Wintle B., Sciara G.N.D., Martin V. Anthropogenic noise as a stressor in animals: a multidisciplinary perspective. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20:250-273.
95. Wright A.J., Soto N.A., Baldwin A., Bateson M., Beale C., Clark C., Deak T., Edwards E., Fernandez A., Godinho A., Hatch L., Kakuschke A., Lusseau D., Martineau D., Romero L., Weilgart L., Wintle B., Sciara G.N.D., Martin V. Do marine mammals experience stress related to anthropogenic noise?. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20:274-316.
96. Wright A.J., Rose N.A., Parsons E.C.M., Dolman S.J. Urging cautious policy applications of captive research data is not the same as rejecting those data. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2009, 58:314-316. 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.12.004
97. Wright A.J., Maar M., Mohn C., Nabe-Nielsen J., Siebert U., Jensen L.F., Baagøe H.J., Teilmann J. Possible causes of a harbour porpoise mass stranding in Danish waters in 2005. PLoS ONE 2013, 8:e55553. 10.1371/journal.pone.0055553