Using an unmanned aerial vehicle-based digital imaging system to derive a 3D point cloud for landslide scarp recognition

Remote Sensing

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2016, Pages

  Al Rawabdeh, Abdulla ^a   He, Fangning ^b   Moussa, Adel ^a,c   El Sheimy, Naser ^a   Habib, Ayman ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

^b PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c PORT SAID UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Geomorphology; landslides scarps; Semi global dense matching (sgm); Slope; Surface roughness; Unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs)

Indexed keywords

AUTOMATION; CAMERAS; DISASTER PREVENTION; DISASTERS; EIGENVALUES AND EIGENFUNCTIONS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; IMAGE MATCHING; IMAGE PROCESSING; LOSSES; MEAN SQUARE ERROR; PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS; RAIN; SURFACE ROUGHNESS; UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES (UAV); VEHICLES;

3D SCENE RECONSTRUCTION; DENSE MATCHING; DIGITAL IMAGING SYSTEM; HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE; ROOT MEAN SQUARE ERRORS; SLOPE; SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL RESOLUTIONS; TOPOGRAPHIC INFORMATION;

LANDSLIDES;

EID: 84962558685     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20724292     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/rs8020095     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Nadim, F.; Kjekstad, O.; Peduzzi, P.; Herold, C.; Jaedicke, C. Global landslide and avalanche hotspots. Landslides 2006, 3, 159-173.
2. Pesci, A.; Teza, G.; Casula, G.; Loddo, F.; de Martino, P.; Dolce, M.; Obrizzo, F.; Pingue, F. Multitemporal laser scanner-based observation of the Mt. Vesuvius crater: Characterization of overall geometry and recognition of landslide events. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 2011, 66, 327-336.
3. Gokceoglu, C.; Sonmez, H.; Nefeslioglu, H.A.; Duman, T.Y.; Can, T. The 17 March 2005 Kuzulu landslide (Sivas, Turkey) and landslide-susceptibility map of its near vicinity. Eng. Geol. 2005, 81, 65-83.
4. Glenn, N.F.; Streutker, D.R.; Chadwick, D.J.; Thackray, G.D.; Dorsch, S.J. Analysis of LiDAR-derived topographic information for characterizing and differentiating landslide morphology and activity. Geomorphology 2006, 73, 131-148.
5. Westoby, M.J.; Brasington, J.; Glasser, N.F.; Hambrey, M.J.; Reynolds, J.M. "Structure-from-motion" photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Geomorphology 2012, 179, 300-314.
6. Schuster, R.L.; Fleming, R.W. Economic losses and fatalities due to landslides. Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 1986, 23, 11-28.
7. Dikau, R.; Brunsden, D.; Schrott, L.; Ibsen, M.L. Landslide Recognition: Identification, Movements and Causes; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1996.
8. Hovius, N.; Stark, C.P.; Allen, P.A. Sediment flux from a mountain belt derived by landslide mapping. Geology 1997, 25, 231-234.
9. Hovius, N.; Stark, C.P.; Hao-Tsu, C.; Jiun-Chuan, L. Supply and removal of sediment in a landslide-dominated mountain belt: Central range, Taiwan. J. Geol. 2000, 108, 73-89.
10. Jakob, M. The impacts of logging on landslide activity at Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. Catena 2000, 38, 279-300.
11. Guzzetti, F.; Cardinali, M.; Reichenbach, P.; Carrara, A. Comparing landslide maps: A case study in the upper Tiber River basin, Central Italy. Environ. Manag. 2000, 25, 247-263.
12. McKean, J.; Roering, J. Objective landslide detection and surface morphology mapping using high-resolution airborne laser altimetry. Geomorphology 2004, 57, 331-351.
13. Zhu, J.J.; Ding, X.L.; Chen, Y.Q. Dynamic landsliding model with integration of monitoring information and mechanic information. Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin. 2003, 32, 261-266.
14. Mahler, C.; Varanda, E.; de Oliveira, L. Analytical model of landslide risk using GIS. Open J. Geol. 2005, 2, 182-188.
15. Zhang, J. 3S-aided landslide hazard monitoring and modeling. Eng. Surv. Mapp. 2015, 14, 1-5.
16. Booth, A.M.; Roering, J.J.; Perron, J.T. Automated landslide mapping using spectral analysis and high-resolution topographic data: Puget Sound lowlands, Washington, and Portland Hills, Oregon. Geomorphology 2009, 109, 132-147.
17. He, Y.P.; Xie, H.; Cui, P.; Wei, F.Q.; Zhong, D.L.; Gardner, J.S. GIS-based hazard mapping and zonation of debris flows in Xiaojiang Basin, southwestern China. Environ. Geol. 2003, 45, 286-293.
18. Donati, L.; Turrini, M.C. An objective method to rank the importance of the factors predisposing to landslides with the GIS methodology: Application to an area of the Apennines (Valnerina; Perugia, Italy). Eng. Geol. 2002, 63, 277-289.
19. Singhroy, V. Landslide Hazards: CEOS, the Use of Earth Observing Satellites for Hazard Support: Assessments and Scenarios; Final Report of the CEOS. NOAA: Silver Spring, MD, USA, 2002; p. 98.
20. Mantovani, F.; Soeters, R.; van Westen, C.J. Remote sensing techniques for landslide studies and hazard zonation in Europe. Geomorphology 1996, 15, 213-225.
21. Martha, T.R.; Kerle, N.; Jetten, V.; van Westen, C.J.; Kumar, K. Landslide volumetric analysis using Cartosat-1-derived DEMs. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 2010, 7, 582-586.
22. Galli, M.; Ardizzone, F.; Cardinali, M.; Guzzetti, F.; Reichenbach, P. Comparing landslide inventory maps. Geomorphology 2008, 94, 268-289.
23. Lin, P.; Lin, J.; Hung, H.C.; Yang, M. Assessing debris-flow hazard in a watershed in Taiwan. Eng. Geol. 2002, 66, 295-313.
24. Martin, Y.; Rood, K.; Schwab, J.W.; Church, M. Sediment transfer by shallow landsliding in the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 2002, 39, 189-205.
25. Westen, C.J.; Getahun, F. Analyzing the evolution of the Tessina landslide using aerial photographs and digital elevation models. Geomorphology 2003, 54, 77-89.
26. Hervás, J.; Barredo, J.I.; Rosin, P.L.; Pasuto, A.; Mantovi, F.; Silvano, S. Monitoring landslides from optical remotely sensed imagery: The case history of Tessina landslide, Italy. Geomorphology 2003, 54, 63-75.
27. Sauchyn, D.; Trench, N. Landsat applied to landslide mapping. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 1978, 44, 735-741.
28. Connors, K.F.; Gardner, T.W.; Petersen, G.W. Classification of geomorphic features and landscape stability in northwestern New Mexico using simulated SPOT imagery. Remote Sens. Environ. 1987, 22, 187-207.
29. Epp, H.; Beaven, L. Mapping slope failure tracks with digital thematic mapper data. In Proceedings of the 1988 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium on Remote Sensing: Moving Towards the 21st Century, Edinburgh, UK, 12-16 September 1988.
30. McKean, J.; Buechel, S.; Gaydos, L. Remote sensing and landslide hazard assessment. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 1991, 57, 1185-1193.
31. Li, X.; Cheng, X.; Chen, W.; Chen, G.; Liu, S. Identification of forested landslides using LiDar data, object-based image analysis, and machine learning algorithms. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 9705-9726.
32. Barlow, J.; Martin, Y.; Franklin, S.E. Detecting translational landslide scars using segmentation of Landsat ETM+ and DEM data in the northern Cascade Mountains, British Columbia. Can. J. Remote Sens. 2003, 29, 510-517.
33. Schulz,W.H. Landslides Mapped Using LIDAR imagery, Seattle, Washington; Open File Report 04-1396. USA Department of the Interior: Seattle, WA, USA.
34. Dou, J.; Chang, K.; Chen, S.; Yunus, A.; Liu, J.; Xia, H.; Zhu, Z. Automatic case-based reasoning approach for landslide detection: Integration of object-oriented image analysis and a genetic algorithm. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 4318-4342.
35. Kraus, K.; Pfeifer, N. Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 1998, 53, 193-203.
36. Vosselman, G. Slope-based filtering of laser altimetry data. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2000, 33, 935-942.
37. Gold, R.D.; Wegmann, K.W.; Palmer, S.P.; Carson, R.J.; Spencer, P.K. A Comparative Study of Aerial Photographs and LiDAR Imagery for Landslide Detection in the Puget Lowland,Washington. In Proceedings of the 99th Annual Meeting, Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico, 1-3 April 2003.
38. Rowlands, K.A.; Jones, L.D.; Whitworth, M. Landslide laser scanning: A new look at an old problem. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 2003, 36, 155-157.
39. Sithole, G.; Vosselman, G. Experimental comparison of filter algorithms for bare-earth extraction from airborne laser scanning point clouds. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 2004, 59, 85-101.
40. Hsaio, K.; Lu, J.; Yu, M.; Tseng, G.Y. Change detection of landslide terrains using ground-based Lidar data. In Proceedings of the 20th ISPRS Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 12-23 July 2004.
41. Metternicht, G.; Hurni, L.; Gogu, R. Remote sensing of landslides: An analysis of the potential contribution to geo-spatial systems for hazard assessment in mountainous environments. Remote Sens. Environ. 2005, 98, 284-303.
42. Bull, J.M.; Miller, H.; Gravley, D.M.; Costello, D.; Hikuroa, D.C.H.; Dix, J.K. Assessing debris flows using LIDAR differencing: 18 May 2005 Matata event, New Zealand. Geomorphology 2010, 124, 75-84.
43. Schulz, W.H. Landslide Susceptibility Estimated from Mapping Using Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Imagery and Historical Landslide Records; Open File Report 2005-1405. USA Department of the Interior: Seattle, WA, USA.
44. Miner, A.S.; Flentje, P.; Mazengarb, C.; Windle, D.J. Landslide recognition using LiDAR derived digital elevation models-lessons learnt from selected Australian example. In Proceedings of the 11th IAEG Congress of the International Association of Engineering Geology and the Environment, Auckland, New Zealand, 5-10 September 2010; pp. 5-9.
45. Leshchinsky, B.A.; Olsen, M.J.; Tanyu, B.F. Contour connection method for automated identification and classification of landslide deposits. Comput. Geosci. 2015, 74, 27-38.
46. Gibson, A.; Forster, A.F.; Poulton, C.; Rowlands, K.; Jones, L.; Hobbs, P.; Whitworth, M. An integrated method for terrestrial laser-scanning subtle landslide features and their geomorphological setting. In Proceedings of the Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Society 2003: Scales and Dynamics in Observing the Environment, Nottingham, England, UK, 10-12 September 2003.
47. Rosser, N.J.; Petley, D.N.; Lim, M.; Dunning, S.A.; Allison, R.J. Terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring the process of hard rock coastal cliff erosion. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 2005, 38, 363-375.
48. Bauer, A.; Paar, G.; Kaltenböck, A. Mass movement monitoring using terrestrial laser scanner for rock fall management. In Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Geoinformation for Disaster Management, Delft, The Netherlands, 21-23 March 2005.
49. Lim, M.; Petley, D.N.; Rosser, N.J.; Allison, R.J.; Long, A.J.; Pybus, D. Combined digital photogrammetry and time-of-flight laser scanning for monitoring cliff evolution. Photogramm. Rec. 2005, 20, 109-129.
50. Dunning, S.A.; Massey, C.I.; Rosser, N.J. Structural and geomorphological features of landslides in the Bhutan Himalaya derived from terrestrial laser scanning. Geomorphology 2009, 103, 17-29.
51. Jaboyedoff, M.; Couture, R.; Locat, P. Structural analysis of Turtle Mountain (Alberta) using digital elevation model: Toward a progressive failure. Geomorphology 2009, 103, 5-16.
52. Sturzenegger, M.; Stead, D. Quantifying discontinuity orientation and persistence on high mountain rock slopes and large landslides using terrestrial remote sensing techniques. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2009, 9, 267-287.
53. Jaboyedoff, M.; Oppikofer, T.; Abellán, A.; Derron, M.; Loye, A.; Metzger, R.; Pedrazzini, A. Use of LiDAR in landslide investigations: A review. Nat. Hazards 2012, 61, 5-28.
54. Ahmad, A. Digital photogrammetry: An experience of processing aerial photograph of UTM acquired using digital camera. In Proceedings of the AsiaGIS, Johor, Malaysia, 3-5 March 2006.
55. Marek, L.; Mĭrijovský, J.; Tuček, P. Monitoring of the shallow landslide using UAV photogrammetry and geodetic measurements. In Engineering Geology for Society and Territory; Springer Verlag International Publishing: Gewerbestrasse, Switzerland, 2015; Volume 2, pp. 113-116.
56. Pajares, G. Overview and current status of remote sensing applications based on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVS). Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 2015, 81, 281-330.
57. Niethammer, U.; James, M.R.; Rothmund, S.; Travelletti, J.; Joswig, M. UAV-based remote sensing of the super-Sauze landslide: Evaluation and results. Eng. Geol. 2012, 128, 2-11.
58. Colomina, I.; Molina, P. Unmanned aerial systems for photogrammetry and remote sensing: A review. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 2014, 92, 79-97.
59. Morillas, L.; García, M.; Nieto, H.; Villagarcia, L.; Sandholt, I.; Gonzalez-Dugo, M.P.; Zarco-Tejada, P.J.; Domingo, F. Using radiometric surface temperature for surface energy flux estimation in Mediterranean drylands from a two-source perspective. Remote Sens.Environ. 2013, 136, 234-246.
60. Frankenberger, J.R.; Huang, C.; Nouwakpo, K. Low-altitude digital photogrammetry technique to assess ephemeral gully erosion. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS 2008), Boston, MA, USA, 7-11 July 2008; pp. 117-120.
61. Agüera, F.; Carvajal, F.; Pérez, M. Measuring sunflower nitrogen status from an unmanned aerial vehicle-based system and an on the ground device. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2011, 22, 33-37.
62. Rau, J.; Jhan, J.; Lob, C.; Linb, Y. Landslide mapping using imagery acquired by a fixed-wing UAV. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2011, 22, 195-200.
63. Turner, D.; Lucieer, A.; de Jong, S.M. Time series analysis of landslide dynamics using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 1736-1757.
64. Stumpf, A.; Lampert, T.A.; Malet, J.; Kerle, N. Multi-scale line detection for landslide fissure mapping. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Munich, Germany, 22-27 July 2011; pp. 5450-5453.
65. Stumpf, A.; Malet, J.P.; Kerle, N.; Niethammer, U.; Rothmund, S. Image-based mapping of surface fissures for the investigation of landslide dynamics. Geomorphology 2013, 186, 12-27.
66. Lin, Y.; Hyyppä, J.; Jaakkola, A. Mini-UAV-borne LIDAR for fine-scale mapping. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 2011, 8, 426-430.
67. Niethammer, U.; Rothmund, S.; Schwaderer, U.; Zeman, L.; Joswig, M. Open source image-processing tools for lowcost UAV-based landslide investigations. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2011, 22, 57-62.
68. Towler, J.; Krawiec, B.; Kochersberger, K. Radiation mapping in post-disaster environments using an autonomous helicopter. Remote Sens. 2012, 4, 1995-2015.
69. Qian, Y.; Shengbo, C.; Peng, L.; Tengfei, C.; Ming, M.; Yanli, L.; Chao, Z.; Liang, Z. Application of low-altitude remote sensing image by unmanned airship in geological hazards investigation. In Proceedings of the Image and Signal Processing 5th International Congress, Chongqing, China, 16-18 October 2012; pp. 1015-1018.
70. WAJ-Water Authority of Jordan, WAJ Internal Files for Groundwater. Basins in Jordan. 2006. Available online: http://www. mwi.gov.jo/sites/en-us (accessed on 15 September 2015).
71. Abderahman, N.S. Landslide at km 56.4 along the Irbid-Amman Highway, Northern Jordan. Environ. Geosci. 1998, 5, 103-114.
72. Masri, M. Report on the Geology of the Amman-Zarqa Area; Central Water Authority: Amman, Jordan, 1963.
73. Sawariah, A.; Barjous, M. Geological Map of Suwaylih Scale 1:50,000, Sheet No. 3154-II; Natural Resources Authority: Amman, Jordan, 1993.
74. Powell, J.H. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of the Phanerozoic Rocks in Central and South Jordan. Part B: Kurnub, Ajlun, and Balqa Groups, Bull. 11, NRA; Geological Directorate: Amman, Jordan, 1989; p. 130.
75. Malkawi, A.I.H.; Saleh, B.; Al-Sheriadeh, M.S.; Hamza, M.S. Mapping of landslide hazard zones in Jordan using remote sensing and GIS. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 2000, 126, 1-17.
76. Saket, S.K.H. Slope Instability on the Jordanian Highways; Unpublished Report. Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MPWH): Amman, Jordan, 1974.
77. Al Rawashdeh, S.; Bassam, S. Studying land sliding and geospatial deformation based on conventional survey and GPS. In Proceedings of the Geospatial Scientific Summit, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 12-13 November 2012.
78. Habib, A.; Jarvis, A.; Detchev, G.; Stensaas, D.; Moe, D.; Christopherson, J. Standards and specifications for the calibration and stability of amateur digital cameras for close-range mapping applications. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2008, 37, 1059-1064.
79. Habib, A.; Pullivelli, A.; Mitishita, E.; Ghanma, M.; Kim, E. Stability analysis of low-cost digital cameras for aerial mapping using different georeferencing techniques. Photogramm. Rec. 2006, 21, 29-43.
80. Al-Rawabdeh, A.; He, F.; Habib, A. Comparative analysis using Multi-sensory data integration for extracting geotechnical parameters. In Proceedings of the ASPRS 2014 Annual Conference, Louisville, KY, USA, 23-28 March 2014.
81. He, F.; Habib, A.; Al-Rawabdeh, A. Planar constraints for an improved UAV-image-based dense point cloud generation. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2015.
82. Varnes, D. Slope movement types and processes. In Landslides Analysis and Control; Schuster, R.L., Krizek, R.J., Eds.; National Academy of Sciences: New York, NY, USA, 1978; Volume 176, pp. 12-33.
83. Van den Eeckhaut, M.; Poesen, J.; Govers, G.; Verstraeten, G.; Demoulin, A. Characteristics of the size distribution of recent and historical landslides in a populated hilly region. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2007, 256, 588-603.
84. He, F.; Habib, A. Linear approach for initial recovery of the exterior orientation parameters of randomly captured images by low-coast mobile mapping system. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2014, 1, 149-154.
85. Lowe, D.G. Distinctive image features from scale-invariant key points. Int. J. Comput. Vis. 2004, 60, 91-110.
86. Cho,W.; Schenk, T.; Madani, M. Resampling digital imagery to epipolar geometry. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 1993, 29, 404-404.
87. Guzzetti, F.; Carrara, A.; Cardinali, M.; Reichenbach, P. Landslide hazard evaluation: A review of current techniques and their application in a multi-scale study, Central Italy. Geomorphology 1999, 31, 181-216.
88. Kasai, M.; Ikeda, M.; Asahina, T.; Fujisawa, K. LiDAR-derived DEM evaluation of deep-seated landslides in a steep and rocky region of Japan. Geomorphology 2009, 113, 57-69.
89. Woodcock, N.H. Specification of fabric shapes using an eigenvalue method. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1977, 88, 1231-1236.
90. Woodcock, N.H.; Naylor, M.A. Randomness testing in three-dimensional orientation data. J. Struct. Geol. 1983, 5, 539-548.
91. Bentley, J.L. Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching. Commun. ACM 1975, 18, 509-517.
92. Arya, S.; Mount, D.M.; Netanyahu, N.S.; Silverman, R.; Wu, A.Y. An optimal algorithm for approximate nearest neighbor searching fixed dimensions. J. ACM 1998, 45, 891-923.
93. Pauly, M.; Gross, M.; Kobbelt, L.P. Efficient simplification of point-sampled surface. In Proceedings of the Conference on Visualization, Boston, MA, USA, 27 October-1 November 2002; IEEE Computer Society:Washington, DC, USA, 2002; pp. 163-170.
94. Lee, S.; Min, K. Statistical analysis of landslide susceptibility at Yongin, Korea. Environ. Geol. 2001, 40, 1095-1113.
95. Coblentz, D.; Pabian, F.; Prasad, L. Quantitative geomorphometrics for terrain characterization. Int. J. Geosci. 2014, 5, 247-266.
96. Çevik, E.; Topal, T. GIS-based landslide susceptibility mapping for a problematic segment of the natural gas pipeline, Hendek (Turkey). Environ. Geol. 2003, 44, 949-962.
97. Lee, S.; Choi, J.; Min, K. Probabilistic landslide hazard mapping using GIS and remote sensing data at Boun, Korea. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2004, 25, 2037-2052.
98. Lee, S. Application of logistic regression model and its validation for landslide susceptibility mapping using GIS and remote sensing data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2005, 26, 1477-1491.
99. Iwahashi, J.;Watanabe, S.; Furuya, T. Mean slope-angle frequency distribution and size frequency distribution of landslide masses in Higashikubiki area, Japan. Geomorphology 2003, 50, 349-364.
100. Tarolli, P. High-resolution topography for understanding Earth surface processes: Opportunities and challenges. Geomorphology 2014, 216, 295-312.
101. Hobson, R.D. Surface roughness in topography: A quantitative approach. In Spatial Analysis in Geomorphology; Chorley, R.J., Ed.; Methuen & Co.: London, UK, 1972; pp. 221-245.
102. Habib, A.F.; Shin, S.W.; Morgan, M.F. New approach for calibrating off-the-shelf digital cameras. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 2002, 34, 144-149.
103. Habib, A.F.; Ghanma, M.S.; Al-Ruzouq, R.I.; Kim, E.M. 3-d Modelling of historical sites using low-cost digital cameras. In Proceedings of the XXth Congress of ISPRS, Istanbul, Turkey, 12-23 July 2004.
104. Habib, A.F.; Pullivelli, A.M. Camera stability analysis and geo-referencing. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Seoul, Korea, 25-29 July 2005; pp. 1169-1172.
105. Zhan, Q.; Molenaar, M.; Tempfli, K.; Shi,W. Quality assessment for geo-spatial objects derived from remotely sensed data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2005, 26, 2953-2974.
106. Tuermer, S.; Kurz, F.; Reinartz, P.; Stilla, U. Airborne vehicle detection in dense urban areas using HoG features and disparity maps. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 2013, 6, 2327-2337.
107. Sim, J.; Wright, C.C. The Kappa statistics in reliability statistics: Use, interpretation, and sample size analysis. J. Am. Phys. Ther. Assoc. 2005, 85, 257-268.
108. Cohen, J. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 1960, 20, 37-46.
109. Landis, J.R.; Koch, G.G. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 1977, 33, 159-174.
110. Monserud, R.A.; Leemans, R. Comparing global vegetation maps with the Kappa statistic. Ecol. Model. 1992, 62, 275-293.