Limiting occupational medical evaluations under the Americans with disabilities act and the genetic information nondiscrimination act

American Journal of Law and Medicine

Volumn 41, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 523-567

  Rothstein, Mark A ^a   Roberts, Jessica ^b   Guidotti, Tee L ^c  

^a University of Louisville School of Medicine   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT; DOCTOR PATIENT RELATION; EMPLOYEE; EMPLOYER; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MEDICAL ASSESSMENT; MEDICAL PRACTICE; WORKPLACE; DISABLED PERSON; GENETIC PRIVACY; LEGISLATION AND JURISPRUDENCE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION; UNITED STATES;

DISABLED PERSONS; GENETIC PRIVACY; HUMANS; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION; UNITED STATES; WORKPLACE;

EID: 84961008816     PISSN: 00988588     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0098858815622190     Document Type: Review

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5. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, 42 U.S.C. §§ 12101-213 (2012).
6. Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1967, 29 U.S.C. §§ 621-34 (2012).
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58. Fusilier v. Dauterive, 2000-0151, p. 5 (La. 7/14/00)
59. See, e.g., Wade v. Vabnick-Wener, 922 F. Supp. 2d 679, 691 (W.D. Tenn. 2010) (duty to maintain confidentiality)
60. Owen v. United States, 645 F. Supp. 2d 806, 826 (D.S.D. 2009) (duty to exercise reasonable care)
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63. see also Thompson v. Nason Hosp., 591 A.2d 703, 707 (Pa. 1991)
64. See, e.g., Felton v. Schaeffer, 279 Cal. Rptr. 713, 716 (Cal. Ct. App. 1991)
65. LoDico v. Caputi, 129 A.D.2d 361, 363 (N.Y. App. Div. 1987)
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70. See generally Tee L. Guidotti & M. Suzanne Arnold, Ethics, in OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES, supra note 43, at 58
71. Mark A. Rothstein, Legal Issues in the Medical Assessment of Physical Impairment by Third-Party Physicians, 5 J. LEGAL MED. 503, 504, 506- 09 (1984).
72. Paul v. Glendale Neurological Assocs., 848 N.W.2d 400, 404 (Mich. 2014) (quoting Dyer v. Trachtman, 679 N.W.2d 311, 314 (Mich. 2004)).
73. E.g., Rogers v. Horvath, 237 N.W.2d 595, 597 (Mich. Ct. App. 1975).
74. E.g., Lotspeich v. Chance Vought Aircraft, 369 S.W.2d 705, 709 (Tex. Ct. App. 1963).
75. See, e.g., Med. Ctr. of Cent. Ga., Inc. v. Landers, 616 S.E.2d 808, 814 (Ga. Ct. App. 2005)
76. See, e.g., Green v. Walker, 910 F.2d 291, 296 (5th Cir. 1990)
77. Ewing v. St. Louis-Clayton Orthopedic Group, Inc., 790 F.2d 682, 687 (8th Cir. 1986)
78. Beadling v. Sirotta, 197 A.2d 857, 860 (N.J. 1964)
79. cf. Coffee v. McDonnell-Douglas Corp., 503 P.2d 1366 (Cal. 1972)
80. But see Woodruff v. Gitlow, 91 A.3d 805, 816 (R.I. 2014)
81. Am. Med. Ass'n, supra note 73, at § 10.03.
82. See Stark v. Hartt Transp. Sys., Inc., 37 F. Supp. 3d 445, 484 (D. Me. 2014)
83. See Am. Coll. of Occupational & Env't Med., supra note 78.
84. See Am. Med. Ass'n, supra note 73, at § 10.03.
85. See Paul W. Brandt-Rauf, Ethical Conflict in the Practice of Occupational Medicine, 46 BRIT. J. INDUS. MED. 63, 63 (1989)
86. Leslie London, Dual Loyalties and the Ethical and Human Rights Obligations of Occupational Health Professionals, 47 AM. J. INDUS. MED. 322, 322 (2005)
87. Sue Gena Lurie, Ethical Dilemmas and Professional Roles in Occupational Medicine, 38 SOC. SCI. & MED. 1367, 1369 (1994)
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90. See ROTHSTEIN ET AL., supra note 8, at 107.
91. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, § 102(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. § 12112(d)(2) (2012).
92. See U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, ADA Enforcement Guidance: Preemployment Disability-Related Questions and Medical Examinations 5371, 5371 (Oct. 10, 1995).
93. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5376.
94. see also Indergaard v. Georgia-Pacific Corp., 582 F.3d 1049, 1053-54 (9th Cir. 2009)
95. EEOC v. Grane Healthcare Co., 2 F.Supp.3d 667 (W.D. Pa. 2014)
96. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5377.
97. see also EEOC v. Rockwell Int'l Corp., 60 F. Supp. 2d 791, 798 (N.D. Ill. 1999), aff'd, 243 F.3d 1012 (7th Cir. 2001)
98. Chicago Reg'l Council of Carpenters v. Thorne Assocs., Inc., 893 F. Supp. 2d 952, 953 (N.D. Ill. 2012)
99. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5377.
100. Karraker v. Rent-A-Center, Inc., 411 F.3d 831, 832, 835 (7th Cir. 2005).
101. Compare Harrison v. Benchmark Electronics Huntsville, Inc., 593 F.3d 1206, 1206 (11th Cir. 2010)
102. Conroy v. New York State Dep't of Corr. Servs., 333 F.3d 88 (2d Cir. 2003)
103. Fredenburg v. Contra Costa Cty. Dep't of Health Servs., 172 F.3d 1176, 1176 (9th Cir. 1999)
104. Tice v. Ctr. Area Trans. Auth., 247 F.3d 506, 516-17 (3d Cir. 2001)
105. Armstrong v. Turner Indus., Inc., 141 F.3d 554, 562 (5th Cir. 1998)
106. See, e.g., Norman-Bloodsaw v. Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 135 F.3d 1260, 1273 (9th Cir. 1998)
107. Barnes v. Broward Cty. Sheriff, 130 F.3d 443 (11th Cir. 1997)
108. Barnes v. Cochran, 944 F. Supp. 897, 905-06 (S.D. Fla. 1996)
109. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, § 102(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. § 12112(d)(3) (2012).
110. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5378.
111. see also McDonald v. Webasto Roof Sys., Inc., 570 F. App'x 474 (6th Cir. 2014)
112. see also EEOC v. Thrivent Fin. for Lutherans, 700 F.3d 1044, 1052 (7th Cir. 2012)
113. § 12112(b)(6). Compare Garrison v. Baker Hughes Oilfield Operations, Inc., 287 F.3d 955, 955 (10th Cir. 2002)
114. Conant v. City of Hibbing, 271 F.3d 782, 783 (8th Cir. 2001)
115. EEOC v. Blue Cross Blue Shield of Conn., 30 F. Supp. 2d 296, 296 (D. Conn. 1998)
116. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5371.
117. See, e.g., Holiday v. City of Chattanooga, 206 F.3d 637, 638 (6th Cir. 2000)
118. EEOC v. Am. Tool & Mold, Inc., 21 F. Supp. 3d 1268, 1284-85 (M.D. Fla. 2014).
119. U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, supra note 97, at 5380
120. see also Blanco v. Bath Iron Works Corp., 802 F. Supp. 2d 215, 224 (D. Me. 2011)
121. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1320d to 13020d-9 (2012)
122. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-233, 122 Stat. 881, (2008) (codified as amended in scattered sections of 29 U.S.C. and 42 U.S.C.).
123. See generally Mark A. Rothstein, The Hippocratic Bargain and Health Information Technology, 38 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 7, 10-11 (2010)
124. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, § 201, 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff (4)(A)
125. see also Mark A. Rothstein, GINA, the ADA, and Genetic Discrimination in Employment, 36 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 837, 838-39 (2008)
126. See Mark A. Rothstein, Access to Sensitive Information in Segmented Electronic Health Records, 40 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 394, 394 (2012)
127. See Coffman v. Indianapolis Fire Dep't, 578 F.3d 559 (7th Cir. 2009)
128. Mickens v. Polk Cty. Sch. Bd., 430 F. Supp. 2d 1265, 1274 (M.D. Fla. 2006) (holding as a matter of law that an employee's rage from conflicts with co- workers does not rise to level of mental impairment under the ADA), aff'd, 195 Fed. App'x 928 (11th Cir. 2006)
129. Dengel v. Waukesha Cty., 16 F. Supp. 3d 983, 994 (E.D. Wis. 2014)
130. Banks v. Bosch Rexroth Corp., 15 F. Supp. 3d 681, 691 (E.D. Ky. 2014)
131. See generally Jarod S. Gonzalez, A Matter of Life and Death: Why the ADA Permits Mandatory Periodic Medical Examinations of " Remote Location " Employees, 66 LA. L. REV. 681 (2006)
132. Blackwell v. SecTek, Inc., 61 F. Supp. 3d 149, 163 (D.D.C. 2014).
133. Krocka v. City of Chicago, 203 F.3d 507, 511 (7th Cir. 2000)
134. see also Kroll v. White Lake Ambulance Auth., 763 F.3d 619, 627 (6th Cir. 2014)
135. See Owusu-Ansah v. Coca-Cola Co., 715 F.3d 1306, 1311 (11th Cir. 2013)
136. Porter v. U.S. Alumoweld Co., 125 F.3d 243, 246 (4th Cir. 1997)
137. Leonard v. Electro-Mech. Corp., 36 F. Supp.3d 679, 683-84 (W.D. Va. 2014).
138. See Tice v. Ctr. Area Trans. Auth., 247 F.3d 506, 510 (3d Cir. 2001)
139. Hennenfent v. Mid Dakota Clinic, 164 F.3d 419, 422 (8th Cir. 1998).
140. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, § 102(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. § 12112(d)(4)(B) (2012).
141. SOEREN MATTKE ET AL., U.S. DEP'T OF LABOR, A REVIEW OF THE U.S. WORKPLACE WELLNESS MARKET 9 (2012), https://www.dol.gov/ebsa/pdf/workplacewellnessmarketreview2012.pdf
142. Incentives for Nondiscriminatory Wellness Programs in Group Health Plans, 78 Fed. Reg. 33158, 33160-61 (June 3, 2013).
143. See Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), 42 U.S.C. § 300gg-4(j)(3)(A) (2012)
144. See, e.g., John P. Caloyeras et al., Managing Manifest Diseases, But Not Health Risks, Saved PepsiCo Money Over Seven Years, 33 HEALTH AFFAIRS 124, 128 fig.2 (2014)
145. Jill R. Horwitz et al., Wellness Incentives in the Workplace: Cost Savings Through Cost Shifting to Unhealthy Workers, 32 HEALTH AFFAIRS 468, 474 (2013)
146. See, e.g., Kristin M. Madison et al., The Law, Policy, and Ethics of Employers' Use of Financial Incentives to Improve Health, 39 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 450, 451-52 (2011)
147. Mark A. Rothstein & Heather L. Harrell, Health Risk Reduction Programs in Employer-Sponsored Health Plans: Part I - Efficacy, 51 J. OCCUPATIONAL & ENVTL. MED. 943, 944-45 (2009)
148. Mark A. Rothstein & Heather L. Harrell, Health Risk Reduction Programs in Employer-Sponsored Health Plans: Part II - Law and Ethics, 51 J. OCCUPATIONAL & ENVTL. MED. 951, 951-52 (2009).
149. See Roberts, supra note 20, at 447 Id.
150. Congressman Ron Paul cast the only no vote. Roberts, supra note 20, at 451.
151. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-233, 122 Stat. 881, (2008) (codified as amended in scattered sections of 29 U.S.C. and 42 U.S.C.).
152. See Roberts, supra note 20, at 457-70.
153. See The Human Genome Project Completion: Frequently Asked Questions, NAT'L. HUMAN GENOME RESEARCH INST., https://www.genome.gov/11006943 [https://perma.cc/3MKD-5LZX]
154. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-233, § 2(1), 122 Stat. 882-83 (2008) (emphasis added).
155. Roberts, supra note 20, at 475-79
156. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, 42 USC §§ 101-06, 122 Stat. 881-905.
157. FAQs on the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, U.S. DEP'T OF LABOR, http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/faqs/faq-GINA.html [http://perma.cc/ZU3F-CJD6].
158. See BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer Risk and Genetic Testing, NAT'L CANCER INST., http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/brca-fact-sheet#q1 [http://perma.cc/24BA-63MX].
159. Jessica L. Roberts, The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act as an Antidiscrimination Law, 86 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 597, 637 (2011)
160. see also Anya E.R. Prince & Benjamin E. Berkman, When Does an Illness Begin: Genetic Discrimination and Disease Manifestation, 40 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 655, 657-60 (2012)
161. Mark A. Rothstein, GINA, the ADA, and Genetic Discrimination in Employment, 36 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 837, 839 fig.1 (2008)
162. See Cancer Genetics Overview-for health professionals, NAT'L CANCER INST., http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/genetics/overview/healthprofessional/page1 [http://perma.cc/8E8R-SX27]
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164. see Cancer Genetics Overview-for health professionals, NAT'L CANCER INST., http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/genetics/overview/healthprofessional/page1 [http://perma.cc/8E8R-SX27].
165. See Genome Statute and Legislation Database Search, NAT'L HUMAN GENOME RESEARCH INST., http://www.genome.gov/PolicyEthics/LegDatabase/PubSearchResult.cfm?content-type=1&content-type-id=1&topic=1&topic-id=1&source-id=1 [http://perma.cc/77K2- LE2H].
166. See Table of State Statutes Related to Genomics, NAT'L HUMAN GENOME RESEARCH INST., http://www.genome.gov/27552194 [http://perma.cc/89SB-PPGY]
167. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff(4)(a)
168. Reed E. Pyeritz, The Family History: The First Genetic Test, and Still Useful After All Those Years?, 14 GENETICS MED. 3 (2012)
169. See Mark A. Rothstein et al., The Ghost in Our Genes: Legal and Ethical Implications of Epigenetics, 19 HEALTH MATRIX 1, 10 (2009).
170. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, § 202(a), 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff-1(a) (2012).
171. Preserving Employee Wellness Programs Act, H.R. 1189, 114th Cong. (2015).
172. See Mark A. Rothstein, Genetic Secrets: A Policy Framework, in GENETIC SECRETS: PROTECTING PRIVACY & CONFIDENTIALITY IN THE GENETIC ERA 459-60 (Mark A. Rothstein ed., 1997)
173. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, § 102, 42 U.S.C. § 12112 (2012)
174. Genetic Information Non-Discrimination Act Charges, U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N, http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/enforcement/genetic.cfm [http://perma.cc/9P6Z-7V78].
175. Robert C. Green et al., GINA and the Future of Genomic Medicine, 372 NEW ENG. J. MED. 397, 399 (2015)
176. see also EEOC Charge Receipts by State (includes U.S. Territories) and Basis for 2014, U.S. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMP'T COMM'N, http://www1.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/enforcement/state-14.cfm [http://perma.cc/84F9-5NHL]
177. Green et al., supra note 201 at 399.
178. Filing a Charge with the EEOC, U.S. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMP'T COMM'N, [http://perma.cc/H267-3EQB]
179. Filing a Lawsuit, U.S. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMP'T COMM'N, http://www.eeoc.gov/employees/lawsuit.cfm [http://perma.cc/H267-3EQB].
180. See Genetic Information Non-Discrimination Act Charges, supra note 199.
181. See, e.g., Evanson v. Safe Haven Shelter, No. 12-1195(JRT/LIB), 2014 WL 1303686, at∗4 (D. Minn. March 31, 2014)
182. Ingenito v. Riri USA, Inc., No. 11-cv-2569(MKB), 2013 WL 752201, at∗2 (E.D.N.Y. Feb. 27, 2013)
183. Pearson v. Charlotte Mecklenburg Schs., No. 3:12-cv-334-RJC, 2013 WL 427080, at∗1 (W.D.N.C. Feb. 4, 2013)
184. Bell v. PSS World Med. Inc., No. 3:12-cv-381-J-99MMH-JRK, 2012 WL 5209136, at∗2-3 (M.D. Fla. Dec. 7, 2012)
185. Leone v. N.J. Orthopedic Specialists, No. 11-3957(ES), PA, 2012 WL 1535198, at∗6 (D. N.J. Apr. 27, 2012).
186. See Smith v. Donahoe, 917 F. Supp. 2d 562, 564 (E.D. Va. 2013).
187. See Amended Complaint-Class Action at 2, Epps v. Fred's Stores of Tenn., No. 2:12-cv-00193-KGB (E.D. Tenn. Feb. 22, 2013).
188. See Sullivan v. Lowe's HIW, Inc., No. C15-1184JLR, 2015 U.S. Dist. LEXIS, at∗2-3 (W.D. Wash. Oct. 22, 2015).
189. Lowe v. Atlas Logistics Group Retail Servs., Atlanta, LLC, No. 1:13-CV-2425-AT, 2015 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 58546, at∗1 (N.D. Ga. May 5, 2015)
190. Complaint at 2, Lynch v. City of N.Y., No. 1:12-CV-04305-VSB-JCF (S.D.N.Y. May 29, 2012)
191. Gibson v. Time-O-Matic, Inc., 2012 WL 5224924 (C.D. Ill. Mar. 29, 2012) (No. 2:12-cv-02105-MPM-DGB).
192. EEOC v. Honeywell Int'l, Inc., No. 14-4517 ADM/TNL, at 1 (D. Minn. Nov. 6, 2014)
193. Lee v. Moraine Fire Dep't, No. 3:13cv00222, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 61385, at∗1-3 (S.D. Ohio May 2, 2014)
194. Allen v. Verizon Wireless, No. 3:12-CV-00482 (JCH), 2013 WL 10924147, at∗23 (D. Conn. June 6, 2013)
195. Williamson v. Fermi Nat'l Accelerator Lab., No. 13-C-4221, 2013 WL 5951853, at∗1 (N.D. Ill. Nov. 7, 2013)
196. Conner-Goodgame v. Wells Fargo Bank N.A., No. 2:12-cv-03426-IPJ, 2013 WL 5428448, at∗8 (N.D. Ala. Sept. 26, 2013)
197. EEOC v. Nestle Prepared Foods, No. 5:11-mc-358-JMH-REW, 2012 WL 1888130, at∗1 (E.D. Ky. May 23, 2012)
198. Poore v. Peterbilt of Bristol, LLC, 852 F. Supp. 2d 727, 730 (W.D. Va. 2012)
199. Tate v. Quad/Graphics Inc., No. 3:10CV00296 BSM, 2011 WL 4352301, at∗2 (E.D. Ark. Sept. 19, 2011)
200. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, EEOC v. Bedford Weaving, Inc., No. 6:15-cv-0027-NKM (W.D. Va. Aug. 13, 2015)
201. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, EEOC v. BNV Home Care Agency, Inc., No. 1:14-cv-05441-JBW-RML (E.D.N.Y. Sept. 17, 2014)
202. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, Punt v. Kelly Servs., No. 1:14-cv-02560 (D. Colo. Sept. 16, 2014)
203. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1-2, EEOC v. Cummins Power Generation, Inc., No. 0:14-cv-03408-SRN-SER (D. Minn. Sept. 8, 2014)
204. Complaint at 2, Mitchell v. Babcock & Wilcox Tech. Servs., 2013 WL 6085923 (E.D. Tenn. Nov. 7, 2013) (No. 3:13CV00667)
205. Complaint at 2, EEOC v. All Star Seed, 2013 WL 10924147 (C.D. Cal. Sept. 30, 2013) (No. 2:13-cv-07196-JAK-AJW)
206. Complaint & Jury Demand at 3, EEOC v. Founders Pavilion, Inc., 2013 WL 2256457 (W.D.N.Y. May 16, 2013) (No. 6:13-cv-06250)
207. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, EEOC v. Fabricut Inc., 2013 WL 3058660 (N.D. Okla. May 7, 2013) (No. 13-CV-248-CVE-PJC)
208. Complaint at 2, Pinkham v. Norfolk S. Corp., 2012 WL 5206707 (N.D. Ind. July 24, 2012) (No. 1:12CV258 JTM)
209. Complaint & Jury Demand at 5, Kapnas v. Olga's Kitchen, Inc., No. 2:12-cv-11407-RHC-LJM (E.D. Mich. Mar. 29, 2012)
210. Complaint for Employment Discrimination at 4, Hewett V. Barclays Capital, 2012 WL 4836049 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 8, 2012) (No. 1:12-cv-01713-PKC)
211. Complaint at 4, Maxwell v. Verde Valley Ambulance Co., Inc., 2012 WL 2630724 (D. Ariz. Mar. 4, 2012) (No. 3:2013CV08044).
212. Lowe, 2015 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 58546, at∗1
213. Honeywell Int'l, Inc., No. 14-4517 ADM/TNL, at 1
214. Lee, 2014 U.S. Dist LEXIS 61385, at∗1-2
215. Allen, 2013 WL 10924147, at∗2
216. Williamson, 2013 WL 5951853, at∗2
217. Nestle Prepared Foods, 2012 WL 1888130, at∗1
218. Poore, 852 F. Supp. 2d at 730
219. Tate, 2011 WL 4352301, at∗1
220. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, Bedford Weaving Inc., No. 6:15-cv-0027-NKM
221. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1,BNV Home Care Agency, Inc., No. 1:14-cv-05441-JBW-RML
222. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1-2, Cummins Power Generation, Inc., No. 0:14-cv-03408-SRN-SER
223. Complaint at 2, Mitchell, 2013 WL 6085923 (No. 3:13CV00667)
224. Complaint at 1, All Star Seed, 2013 WL 10924147 (No. 2:13-cv-07196-JAK-AJW)
225. Complaint at 2, Lynch, No. 1:12-CV-04305-VSB-JCF
226. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, Founders Pavilion, Inc., 2013 WL 2256457 (No. 6:13-cv-06250);
227. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1, Fabricut Inc., 2013 WL 3058660 (No. 13-CV-248-CVE-PJC)
228. Complaint at 2, Pinkham, 2012 WL 5206707 (No. 1:12CV258 JTM);
229. Complaint for Injunctive Relief and Damages at 3, Gibson, 2012 WL 5224924 (No. 2:12-CV-02105);
230. Complaint & Jury Demand at 5, Kapnas, No. 2:12-cv-11407-RHC-LJM
231. Complaint for Employment Discrimination at 4, Hewett, 2012 WL 4836049 (No. 1:12-cv-01713-PKC)
232. Complaint at 4, Maxwell, 2012 WL 2630724 (No. 3:2013CV08044).
233. Complaint & Jury Demand at 3, Fabricut Inc., 2013 WL 3058660 (No. 13-CV-248-CVE-PJC).
234. Joint Motion for Entry of Agreed Consent Decree at 1, 5, Fabricut Inc., 2013 WL 3058660 (No. 13-CV-248-CVE-PJC)
235. Press Release, Fabricut to Pay $50,000 to Settle EEOC Disability and Genetic Information Lawsuit, Equal Emp't Opportunity Comm'n (May 7, 2013), http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/5-7-13b.cfm [http://perma.cc/TA6F-HMPX].
236. Press Release, Founders Pavilion Will Pay $370,000 to Settle EEOC Genetic Information Discrimination Lawsuit, Equal Emp't Opportunity Comm'n (Jan. 13, 2014), http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/1-13-14.cfm [http://perma.cc/4YDS-9ECM].
237. Complaint & Jury Demand at 1-2, EEOC v. Founders Pavilion, Inc., 2013 WL 2256457 (W.D.N.Y. May 16, 2013) (No. 6:13-cv-06250).
238. Founders Pavilion Will Pay $370,000 to Settle EEOC Genetic Information Discrimination Lawsuit, supra note 219.
239. Complaint at 1, EEOC v. All Star Seed, 2013 WL 10924147 (C.D. Cal. Sept. 30, 2013) (No. 2:13-cv-07196-JAK-AJW).
240. EEOC v. Nestle Prepared Foods, No. 5:11-mc-358-JMH-REW, 2012 WL 1888130, at∗1 (E.D. Ky. May 23, 2012)
241. E.g., Complaint at 2, Maxwell v. Verde Valley Ambulance Co., Inc., 2012 WL 2630724 (D. Ariz. Mar. 4, 2012) (No. 3:2013CV08044)
242. E.g., Complaint for Employment Discrimination at 4, Hewett v. Barclays Capital, 2012 WL 4836049 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 8, 2012) (No. 1:12-cv-01713-PKC).
243. E.g., Tate v. Quad/Graphics Inc., No. 3:10CV00296 BSM, 2011 WL 4352301, at∗1 (E.D. Ark. Sept. 19, 2011)
244. Maxwell v. Verde Valley Ambulance Co., Inc., No. CV-13-08044-PCT-BSB, 2014 WL 4470512, at∗14 (D. Ariz. Sept. 11, 2014).
245. Pinkham v. Norfolk S. Corp., No. 1:12-cv-00258-JTM-RBC (N.D. Ind. dismissed July 24, 2012).
246. Williamson v. Fermi Nat'l Accelerator Lab., No. 13-C-4221, 2013 WL 5951853 (N.D. Ill. 2013).
247. Williamson v. Fermi Nat'l Accelerator Lab., 2015 WL 360382, at∗3 (N.D. Ill. 2015).
248. Lowe v. Atlas Logistics Grp. Retail Servs., No. 1:13-CV-2425-AT, 2015 WL 2058906, at∗1 (N.D. Ga. May 5, 2015)
249. Gina Kolata, Georgia: $2.2. Million Penalty for Illegal DNA Testing, N.Y. TIMES, June 22, 2015, at A15.
250. Lowe, 2015 WL 2058906 (No. 1:13-cv-2425-AT)
251. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff-6 (capping the total damages available under GINA claims at the same maximum amount found at 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3), which is $300,000 for each complaining party asserting a claim against an employer with 500 or more employees)
252. see also Kolata, supra note 237.
253. Nita Farahany, Test for "Devious Defecator" was Unlawful, Judge Rules, VOLOKH CONSPIRACY, May 30, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/05/30/test-for-devious-defecator-was-unlawful-judge-rules/ [https://perma.cc/M6LP-66X3].
254. Poore v. Peterbilt of Bristol, LLC, 852 F. Supp. 2d 727, 727 (W.D. Va. 2012).
255. Regulations Under the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, 75 Fed. Reg. 68,912, 68,915 (Nov. 9, 2010) (codified as amended at 29 C.F.R. § 1635).
256. See Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-191, § 101, 110 Stat. 1936, 1939 (1996).
257. See Poore, 852 F. Supp. 2d at 731.
258. See Allen v. Verizon Wireless, No. 3:12-CV-00482 (JCH), 2013 WL 2467923, at∗23 (D. Conn. June 6, 2013).
259. Recommended Curriculum Guidelines for Family Medicine Residents - Medical Genetics, AM. ACAD. OF FAMILY PHYSICIANS 2, http://www.aafp.org/dam/AAFP/documents/medical-education-residency/program-directors?Reprint258-Genetics.pdf [http://perma.cc/8VDF-XHCU].
260. See Founders Pavilion Will Pay $370,000 to Settle EEOC Genetic Information Discrimination Lawsuit, supra note 219.
261. Kristin D. Anger & Sofia D. Mabee, Fitness for Duty: Walking the Medical-Legal Tightrope 13 (2013).
262. Notice of Safety Advisory 2004-04; Effect of Sleep Disorders on Safety of Railroad Operations, 69 Fed. Reg. 58995 (Oct. 1, 2004)
263. Christopher Dye et al., Evolution of Tuberculosis Control and Prospects for Reducing Tuberculosis Incidence, Prevalence, and Deaths Globally, 293 J. AM. MED. ASS'N 2767, 2767 (2005)
264. Wayne N. Burton et al., The Value of the Periodic Executive Health Examination: Experience at Bank One and Summary of the Literature, 44 J. OCCUPATIONAL & ENV'T MED. 737, 742 (2002)
265. Lisa D. Piechowski & Albert M. Drukteinis, Handbook of Forensic Assessment: Psychological and Psychiatric Perspectives 571 (Eric Y. Drogin et al. eds., 2011).
266. See Jessica L. Roberts, Healthism & the Law of Employment Discrimination, 99 IOWA L. REV. 571, 627 (2014)
267. ROTHSTEIN, supra note 3, at 4.
268. Joseph Pachman, Evidence Base for Pre-Employment Medical Screening, 87 BULL. WORLD HEALTH ORG. 529, 530 (2009).
269. See generally FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1911)
270. See, e.g., P.H. Rockey et al., Discriminatory Aspects of Pre-Employment Screening: Low-Back X-Ray Examinations in the Railroad Industry, 5 AM. J.L. & MED. 197, 205 (1979) (demonstrating the lack of predictive value of low-back x-rays)
271. G. Harbin & J. Olson, Post-offer, Pre-placement Testing in Industry, 47 AM. J. INDUS. MED. 296, 297 (2005)
272. See Redaction in Health Information Management, INFORMATIVE GRAPHICS CORP. 1 (2013), http://www.infograph.com/sites/default/files/whitepapers/Healthcare-Redaction-White-Paper.pdf [http://perma.cc/3GLL-2RMQ].
273. Peggy R. Mastroianni, ADA & GINA: Confidentiality Requirements, U.S. EQUAL EMP'T OPPORTUNITY COMM'N (May 31, 2011), http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/foia/letters/2011/ada-gina-confidentrequre.html [http://perma.cc/BN54-CKRW].
274. P. J. Nicholson et al., Current Best Practice for the Health Surveillance of Enzyme Workers in the Soap and Detergent Industry, 51 OCCUP. MED. 81, 82 (2001).
275. See generally Jessica Herzstein, Susceptible Populations, in TEXTBOOK OF CLINICAL OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE, supra note 34
276. Exposure to Coke Oven Emissions, 40 Fed. Reg. 32,270, 32,270 (July 31, 1975).
277. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, § 202(b), 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff-1(b) (2012).
278. By contrast, section 202(b)(5) of GINA, 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff-1(b)(5), permits genetic monitoring of already-exposed employees if certain conditions are satisfied.
279. Cal. Dep't of Public Health & Cal. Dep't of Indus. Relations, Understanding Toxic Substances (2008).
280. See, e.g., Fiore v. Consol. Freightways, 659 A.2d 436, 445 (N.J. 1995).
281. Arby's Rest. Group, Inc. v. McRae, 734 S.E.2d 55, 57 (Ga. 2012).
282. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, § 202(b), 42 U.S.C. § 2000ff-1(b) (2012).
283. Preserving Employee Wellness Programs Act, H.R. 1189, 114th Cong. (2015).
284. Preserving Employee Wellness Programs Act, S. 620, 114th Cong. § 3 (2015) (" [T]he collection of information about the manifested disease or disorder of a family member shall not be considered an unlawful acquisition of genetic information with respect to another family member [. . .] and shall not violate title I or title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 . . . .").
285. see TEE L. GUIDOTTI, THE PRAEGER HANDBOOK OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE (2010).
286. See generally Roberts, supra note 20 (examining several possible benefits of adopting GINA preemptively).
287. U.S. Dep't Health & Human Servs., Physicians Supply and Demand 13-15 tbls.11-13.
288. See Norman-Bloodsaw v. Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 135 F.3d 1260, 1264 (9th Cir. 1998) (concerning sickle cell trait)
289. Memorandum in Support of Petition for a Preliminary Injunction at 4, EEOC v. Burlington N. Santa Fe R.R., No. C01-4013MWB (N.D. Iowa Feb. 9, 2001) (addressing carpal tunnel disease).
290. See ROTHSTEIN, supra note 3, at 15-16.
291. Int'l Union v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187, 187 (1991).
292. See Rockey et al., supra note 267.
293. See Mark A. Rothstein, Genetics and the Work Force of the Next Hundred Years, 2000 Colum. Bus. L. Rev. 371, 391-95 (2000)