Pathophysiology and management of cardiovascular disease in patients with HIV

The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology

Volumn 4, Issue 7, 2016, Pages 598-610

  Nou, Eric ^a   Lo, Janet ^a   Hadigan, Colleen ^b   Grinspoon, Steven K ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; NONNUCLEOSIDE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITOR; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

ARTERIAL WALL THICKNESS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DILATATION; DISEASE COURSE; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EXERCISE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART PROTECTION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOMODULATION; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LIPODYSTROPHY; MACROPHAGE; MONOCYTE; MORTALITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; T LYMPHOCYTE; COMPLICATION; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; IMMUNOLOGY; VIROLOGY;

ANTI-RETROVIRAL AGENTS; CORONARY DISEASE; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84957927145     PISSN: 22138587     EISSN: 22138595     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00388-5     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. HIV/AIDS: data and statistics WHO, (accessed Aug 3, 2015). http://www.who.int/hiv/data/en/.
2. Miller CJ, Baker JV, Bormann AM, et al. Adjudicated morbidity and mortality outcomes by age among individuals with HIV infection on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One 2014, 9:e95061. for the INSIGHT SMART and ESPRIT Study Groups.
3. Smit M, Brinkman K, Geerlings S, et al. Future challenges for clinical care of an ageing population infected with HIV: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis 2015, 15:810-818. on behalf of the ATHENA observational cohort.
4. Morlat P, Roussillon C, Henard S, et al. Causes of death among HIV-infected patients in France in 2010 (national survey): trends since 2000. AIDS 2014, 28:1181-1191. for the ANRS EN20 Mortalité 2010 Study Group.
5. Hasse B, Ledergerber B, Furrer H, et al. Morbidity and aging in HIV-infected persons: the Swiss HIV cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:1130-1139. the Swiss HIV Cohort Study.
6. Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP, Sidney S Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection?. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002, 30:471-477.
7. Currier JS, Taylor A, Boyd F, et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003, 33:506-512.
8. Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, Grinspoon SK Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92:2506-2512.
9. Obel N, Thomsen HF, Kronborg G, et al. Ischemic heart disease in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals: a population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44:1625-1631.
10. Lang S, Mary-Krause M, Cotte L, et al. Increased risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients in France, relative to the general population. AIDS 2010, 24:1228-1230. for the French Hospital Database on HIV-ANRS CO4.
11. Durand M, Sheehy O, Baril JG, Lelorier J, Tremblay CL Association between HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy, and risk of acute myocardial infarction: a cohort and nested case-control study using Québec's public health insurance database. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011, 57:245-253.
12. Freiberg MS, Chang CC, Kuller LH, et al. HIV infection and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med 2013, 173:614-622.
13. Paisible AL, Chang CC, So-Armah KA, et al. HIV infection, cardiovascular disease risk factor profile, and risk for acute myocardial infarction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015, 68:209-216.
14. Zanni MV, Schouten J, Grinspoon SK, Reiss P Risk of coronary heart disease in patients with HIV infection. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014, 11:728-741.
15. Goff DC, Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014, 63:2935-2959. the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines.
16. Hulten E, Mitchell J, Scally J, Gibbs B, Villines TC HIV positivity, protease inhibitor exposure and subclinical atherosclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Heart 2009, 95:1826-1835.
17. Grunfeld C, Delaney JA, Wanke C, et al. Preclinical atherosclerosis due to HIV infection: carotid intima-medial thickness measurements from the FRAM study. AIDS 2009, 23:1841-1849.
18. Lo J, Abbara S, Shturman L, et al. Increased prevalence of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis detected by coronary computed tomography angiography in HIV-infected men. AIDS 2010, 24:243-253.
19. Post WS, Budoff M, Kingsley L, et al. Associations between HIV infection and subclinical coronary atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med 2014, 160:458-467.
20. Zanni MV, Abbara S, Lo J, et al. Increased coronary atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability by coronary computed tomography angiography in HIV-infected men. AIDS 2013, 27:1263-1272.
21. Motoyama S, Sarai M, Narula J, Ozaki Y Coronary CT angiography and high-risk plaque morphology. Cardiovasc Interv Ther 2013, 28:1-8.
22. Tesoriero JM, Gieryic SM, Carrascal A, Lavigne HE Smoking among HIV positive New Yorkers: prevalence, frequency, and opportunities for cessation. AIDS Behav 2010, 14:824-835.
23. Soliman EZ, Sharma S, Arastéh K, et al. Baseline cardiovascular risk in the INSIGHT Strategic Timing of AntiRetroviral Treatment (START) trial. HIV Med 2015, 16(suppl 1):46-54. the International Network for Strategic Initiatives in Global HIV Trials (INSIGHT) START Study Group.
24. Brown TT, Cole SR, Li X, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Arch Intern Med 2005, 165:1179-1184.
25. Butt AA, McGinnis K, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, et al. HIV infection and the risk of diabetes mellitus. AIDS 2009, 23:1227-1234. for the Veterans Aging Cohort Study.
26. Galli L, Salpietro S, Pellicciotta G, et al. Risk of type 2 diabetes among HIV-infected and healthy subjects in Italy. Eur J Epidemiol 2012, 27:657-665.
27. De Wit S, Sabin CA, Weber R, et al. Incidence and risk factors for new-onset diabetes in HIV-infected patients: the Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:D) study. Diabetes Care 2008, 31:1224-1229.
28. Calza L, Masetti G, Piergentili B, et al. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus, hyperinsulinaemia and metabolic syndrome among 755 adult patients with HIV-1 infection. Int J STD AIDS 2011, 22:43-45.
29. Worm SW, Kamara DA, Reiss P, et al. Elevated triglycerides and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-positive persons. AIDS 2011, 25:1497-1504.
30. Worm SW, De Wit S, Weber R, et al. Diabetes mellitus, preexisting coronary heart disease, and the risk of subsequent coronary heart disease events in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: the Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:D Study). Circulation 2009, 119:805-811.
31. Rasmussen LD, Helleberg M, May MT, et al. Myocardial infarction among Danish HIV-infected individuals: population-attributable fractions associated with smoking. Clin Infect Dis 2015, 60:1415-1423.
32. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:1723-1735. The DAD Study Group.
33. Worm SW, Sabin C, Weber R, et al. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients with HIV infection exposed to specific individual antiretroviral drugs from the 3 major drug classes: the data collection on adverse events of anti-HIV drugs (D:A:D) study. J Infect Dis 2010, 201:318-330.
34. Monforte A, Reiss P, Ryom L, et al. Atazanavir is not associated with an increased risk of cardio- or cerebrovascular disease events. AIDS 2013, 27:407-415.
35. Stein JH, Ribaudo HJ, Hodis HN, et al. A prospective, randomized clinical trial of antiretroviral therapies on carotid wall thickness. AIDS 2015, 29:1775-1783.
36. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 2008, 22:F17-F24. The SMART/INSIGHT and the D:A:D Study Groups.
37. Choi AI, Vittinghoff E, Deeks SG, Weekley CC, Li Y, Shlipak MG Cardiovascular risks associated with abacavir and tenofovir exposure in HIV-infected persons. AIDS 2011, 25:1289-1298.
38. Young J, Xiao Y, Moodie EE, et al. Effect of cumulating exposure to Abacavir on the risk of cardiovascular disease events in patients from the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015, 69:413-421.
39. Desai M, Joyce V, Bendavid E, et al. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with current exposure to HIV antiretroviral therapies in a US veteran population. Clin Infect Dis 2015, 61:445-452.
40. Cruciani M, Zanichelli V, Serpelloni G, et al. Abacavir use and cardiovascular disease events: a meta-analysis of published and unpublished data. AIDS 2011, 25:1993-2004.
41. Ding X, Andraca-Carrera E, Cooper C, et al. No association of abacavir use with myocardial infarction: findings of an FDA meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2012, 61:441-447.
42. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006, 355:2283-2296. The Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group.
43. Kuller LH, Tracy R, Belloso W, et al. Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med 2008, 5:e203. for the INSIGHT SMART Study Group.
44. Tenorio AR, Zheng Y, Bosch RJ, et al. Soluble markers of inflammation and coagulation but not T-cell activation predict non-AIDS-defining morbid events during suppressive antiretroviral treatment. J Infect Dis 2014, 210:1248-1259.
45. Duprez DA, Neuhaus J, Kuller LH, et al. Inflammation, coagulation and cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected individuals. PLoS One 2012, 7:e44454. for the INSIGHT SMART Study Group.
46. Lang S, Mary-Krause M, Simon A, et al. HIV replication and immune status are independent predictors of the risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55:600-607. the French Hospital Database on HIV (FHDH)-ANRS CO4.
47. Triant VA, Regan S, Lee H, Sax PE, Meigs JB, Grinspoon SK Association of immunologic and virologic factors with myocardial infarction rates in a US healthcare system. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010, 55:615-619.
48. Sabin CA, Ryom L, De Wit S, et al. Associations between immune depression and cardiovascular events in HIV infection. AIDS 2013, 27:2735-2748. for the D:A:D Study Group.
49. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015, 373:795-807. The INSIGHT START Study Group.
50. Hileman CO, Longenecker CT, Carman TL, McComsey GA C-reactive protein predicts 96-week carotid intima media thickness progression in HIV-infected adults naive to antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014, 65:340-344.
51. Triant VA, Meigs JB, Grinspoon SK Association of C-reactive protein and HIV infection with acute myocardial infarction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009, 51:268-273.
52. Longenecker CT, Funderburg NT, Jiang Y, et al. Markers of inflammation and CD8 T-cell activation, but not monocyte activation, are associated with subclinical carotid artery disease in HIV-infected individuals. HIV Med 2013, 14:385-390.
53. Kelesidis T, Kendall MA, Yang OO, Hodis HN, Currier JS Biomarkers of microbial translocation and macrophage activation: association with progression of subclinical atherosclerosis in HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 2012, 206:1558-1567.
54. McKibben RA, Margolick JB, Grinspoon S, et al. Elevated levels of monocyte activation markers are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in men with and those without HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2015, 211:1219-1228.
55. Parra S, Coll B, Aragonés G, et al. Nonconcordance between subclinical atherosclerosis and the calculated Framingham risk score in HIV-infected patients: relationships with serum markers of oxidation and inflammation. HIV Med 2010, 11:225-231.
56. 2 and cardiovascular disease risk in HIV infection. HIV Med 2014, 15:537-546.
57. Nou E, Lu MT, Looby SE, et al. Serum oxidized low-density lipoprotein decreases in response to statin therapy and relates independently to reductions in coronary plaque in patients with HIV. AIDS 2015, published online Nov 10. 10.1097/QAD.0000000000000946.
58. Zanni MV, Kelesidis T, Fitzgerald ML, et al. HDL redox activity is increased in HIV-infected men in association with macrophage activation and non-calcified coronary atherosclerotic plaque. Antivir Ther 2014, 19:805-811.
59. Burdo TH, Lo J, Abbara S, et al. Soluble CD163, a novel marker of activated macrophages, is elevated and associated with noncalcified coronary plaque in HIV-infected patients. J Infect Dis 2011, 204:1227-1236.
60. Merlini E, Luzi K, Suardi E, et al. T-cell phenotypes, apoptosis and inflammation in HIV+ patients on virologically effective cART with early atherosclerosis. PLoS One 2012, 7:e46073.
61. Sandler NG, Wand H, Roque A, et al. Plasma levels of soluble CD14 independently predict mortality in HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2011, 203:780-790. for the INSIGHT SMART Study Group.
62. Baker JV, Hullsiek KH, Singh A, et al. Immunologic predictors of coronary artery calcium progression in a contemporary HIV cohort. AIDS 2014, 28:831-840. for the CDC SUN Study Investigators.
63. Westhorpe CL, Maisa A, Spelman T, et al. Associations between surface markers on blood monocytes and carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-positive individuals. Immunol Cell Biol 2014, 92:133-138.
64. Kaplan RC, Sinclair E, Landay AL, et al. T cell activation and senescence predict subclinical carotid artery disease in HIV-infected women. J Infect Dis 2011, 203:452-463.
65. Kaplan RC, Kingsley LA, Gange SJ, et al. Low CD4+ T-cell count as a major atherosclerosis risk factor in HIV-infected women and men. AIDS 2008, 22:1615-1624.
66. Baker JV, Henry WK, Patel P, et al. Progression of carotid intima-media thickness in a contemporary human immunodeficiency virus cohort. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:826-835. for the Study to Understand the Natural History of HIV/AIDS in the Era of Effective Therapy Investigators.
67. Hunt PW, Martin JN, Sinclair E, et al. T cell activation is associated with lower CD4+ T cell gains in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with sustained viral suppression during antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2003, 187:1534-1543.
68. Tebas P, Henry WK, Matining R, et al. Metabolic and immune activation effects of treatment interruption in chronic HIV-1 infection: implications for cardiovascular risk. PLoS One 2008, 3:e2021.
69. Rogacev KS, Cremers B, Zawada AM, et al. CD14++CD16+ monocytes independently predict cardiovascular events: a cohort study of 951 patients referred for elective coronary angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012, 60:1512-1520.
70. Funderburg NT, Zidar DA, Shive C, et al. Shared monocyte subset phenotypes in HIV-1 infection and in uninfected subjects with acute coronary syndrome. Blood 2012, 120:4599-4608.
71. Subramanian S, Tawakol A, Burdo TH, et al. Arterial inflammation in patients with HIV. JAMA 2012, 308:379-386.
72. Mujawar Z, Rose H, Morrow MP, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus impairs reverse cholesterol transport from macrophages. PLoS Biol 2006, 4:e365.
73. El Khoury P, Ghislain M, Villard EF, et al. Plasma cholesterol efflux capacity from human THP-1 macrophages is reduced in HIV-infected patients: impact of HAART. J Lipid Res 2015, 56:692-702.
74. Lo J, Rosenberg ES, Fitzgerald ML, et al. High-density lipoprotein-mediated cholesterol efflux capacity is improved by treatment with antiretroviral therapy in acute human immunodeficiency virus infection. Open Forum Infect Dis 2014, 1:ofu108.
75. Beltrán LM, Muñoz Hernández R, de Pablo Bernal RS, et al. Reduced sTWEAK and increased sCD163 levels in HIV-infected patients: modulation by antiretroviral treatment, HIV replication and HCV co-infection. PLoS One 2014, 9:e90541.
76. Freiberg MS, Cheng DM, Kraemer KL, Saitz R, Kuller LH, Samet JH The association between hepatitis C infection and prevalent cardiovascular disease among HIV-infected individuals. AIDS 2007, 21:193-197.
77. Brenchley JM, Price DA, Schacker TW, et al. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nat Med 2006, 12:1365-1371.
78. Srinivasa S, Fitch KV, Lo J, et al. Plaque burden in HIV-infected patients is associated with serum intestinal microbiota-generated trimethylamine. AIDS 2015, 29:443-452.
79. Pereyra F, Lo J, Triant VA, et al. Increased coronary atherosclerosis and immune activation in HIV-1 elite controllers. AIDS 2012, 26:2409-2412.
80. Hsue PY, Hunt PW, Schnell A, et al. Role of viral replication, antiretroviral therapy, and immunodeficiency in HIV-associated atherosclerosis. AIDS 2009, 23:1059-1067.
81. Figueroa AL, Abdelbaky A, Truong QA, et al. Measurement of arterial activity on routine FDG PET/CT images improves prediction of risk of future CV events. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2013, 6:1250-1259.
82. 18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Circulation 2002, 105:2708-2711.
83. Lo J, Lu MT, Ihenachor EJ, et al. Effects of statin therapy on coronary artery plaque volume and high-risk plaque morphology in HIV-infected patients with subclinical atherosclerosis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet HIV 2015, 2:e52-e63.
84. Maurovich-Horvat P, Ferencik M, Voros S, Merkely B, Hoffmann U Comprehensive plaque assessment by coronary CT angiography. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014, 11:390-402.
85. Tawakol A, Lo J, Zanni MV, et al. Increased arterial inflammation relates to high-risk coronary plaque morphology in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014, 66:164-171.
86. D'Agostino RB Cardiovascular risk estimation in 2012: lessons learned and applicability to the HIV population. J Infect Dis 2012, 205(suppl 3):S362-S367.
87. Zanni MV, Fitch KV, Feldpausch M, et al. 2013 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association and 2004 Adult Treatment Panel III cholesterol guidelines applied to HIV-infected patients with/without subclinical high-risk coronary plaque. AIDS 2014, 28:2061-2070.
88. Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014, 63:2889-2934.
89. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001, 285:2486-2497. Expert Panel on Detection, EvaluationEvaluation, Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in AdultsTreatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults.
90. Metkus TS, Brown T, Budoff M, et al. HIV infection is associated with an increased prevalence of coronary noncalcified plaque among participants with a coronary artery calcium score of zero: Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). HIV Med 2015, 16:635-639.
91. Friis-Moller N, Ryom L, Smith C, et al. An updated prediction model of the global risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-positive persons: the Data-collection on Adverse Effects of Anti-HIV Drugs (D:A:D) study. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2015, published online April 16.
92. Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG, Emmanuel P, Zingman BS, Horberg MA Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2014, 58:e1-34.
93. European AIDS Clinical Society Guidelines Version 8.0. European AIDS Clinical Society EACS, (accessed Jan 13, 2016). http://www.eacsociety.org/files/2015_eacsguidelines_8.0-english_rev-20151221.pdf.
94. Klein DB, Leyden WA, Xu L, et al. Declining relative risk for myocardial infarction among HIV-positive compared with HIV-negative individuals with access to care. Clin Infect Dis 2015, 60:1278-1280.
95. Petoumenos K, Worm S, Reiss P, et al. Rates of cardiovascular disease following smoking cessation in patients with HIV infection: results from the D:A:D study. HIV Med 2011, 12:412-421. the D:A:D Study Group.
96. Helleberg M, May MT, Ingle SM, et al. Smoking and life expectancy among HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America. AIDS 2015, 29:221-229.
97. Cropsey KL, Jardin BF, Burkholder GA, Clark CB, Raper JL, Saag MS An algorithm approach to determining smoking cessation treatment for persons living with HIV/AIDS: results of a pilot trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015, 69:291-298.
98. Carr A, Miller J, Law M, Cooper DA A syndrome of lipoatrophy, lactic acidaemia and liver dysfunction associated with HIV nucleoside analogue therapy: contribution to protease inhibitor-related lipodystrophy syndrome. AIDS 2000, 14:F25-F32.
99. Thiébaut R, Daucourt V, Mercié P, et al. Lipodystrophy, metabolic disorders, and human immunodeficiency virus infection: Aquitaine Cohort, France, 1999. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31:1482-1487. the Groupe d'Epidémiologie Clinique du Syndrome d'Immunodéficience Acquise en Aquitaine.
100. Henry K, Melroe H, Huebsch J, et al. Severe premature coronary artery disease with protease inhibitors. Lancet 1998, 351:1328.
101. Carr A, Samaras K, Burton S, et al. A syndrome of peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia and insulin resistance in patients receiving HIV protease inhibitors. AIDS 1998, 12:F51-F58.
102. Guaraldi G, Scaglioni R, Zona S, et al. Epicardial adipose tissue is an independent marker of cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 2011, 25:1199-1205.
103. Lo J, Abbara S, Rocha-Filho JA, Shturman L, Wei J, Grinspoon SK Increased epicardial adipose tissue volume in HIV-infected men and relationships to body composition and metabolic parameters. AIDS 2010, 24:2127-2130.
104. Stanley TL, Feldpausch MN, Oh J, et al. Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014, 312:380-389.
105. Falutz J, Allas S, Blot K, et al. Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in patients with HIV. N Engl J Med 2007, 357:2359-2370.
106. Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Basgoz N, Davis B, Sax P, Grinspoon S Metformin in the treatment of HIV lipodystrophy syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000, 284:472-477.
107. Hadigan C, Meigs JB, Rabe J, et al. Increased PAI-1 and tPA antigen levels are reduced with metformin therapy in HIV-infected patients with fat redistribution and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86:939-943.
108. van Wijk JP, de Koning EJ, Cabezas MC, et al. Comparison of rosiglitazone and metformin for treating HIV lipodystrophy: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2005, 143:337-346.
109. Slama L, Palella FJ, Abraham AG, et al. Inaccuracy of haemoglobin A1c among HIV-infected men: effects of CD4 cell count, antiretroviral therapies and haematological parameters. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014, 69:3360-3367.
110. Srinivasa S, Fitch KV, Wong K, et al. RAAS activation is associated with visceral adiposity and insulin resistance among HIV-infected patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015, 100:2873-2882.
111. Fitch K, Abbara S, Lee H, et al. Effects of lifestyle modification and metformin on atherosclerotic indices among HIV-infected patients with the metabolic syndrome. AIDS 2012, 26:587-597.
112. Dubé MP, Wu JW, Aberg JA, et al. Safety and efficacy of extended-release niacin for the treatment of dyslipidaemia in patients with HIV infection: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5148. Antivir Ther 2006, 11:1081-1089. the AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5148 Study Team.
113. Muñoz MA, Liu W, Delaney JA, et al. Comparative effectiveness of fish oil versus fenofibrate, gemfibrozil, and atorvastatin on lowering triglyceride levels among HIV-infected patients in routine clinical care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013, 64:254-260.
114. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:2195-2207. for the JUPITER Study Group.
115. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170 000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet 2010, 376:1670-1681. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaboration.
116. Funderburg NT, Jiang Y, Debanne SM, et al. Rosuvastatin reduces vascular inflammation and T-cell and monocyte activation in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015, 68:396-404.
117. Stein JH, Merwood MA, Bellehumeur JL, et al. Effects of pravastatin on lipoproteins and endothelial function in patients receiving human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors. Am Heart J 2004, 147:E18.
118. Boccara F, Simon T, Lacombe K, et al. Influence of pravastatin on carotid artery structure and function in dyslipidemic HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2006, 20:2395-2398.
119. Moore RD, Bartlett JG, Gallant JE Association between use of HMG CoA reductase inhibitors and mortality in HIV-infected patients. PLoS One 2011, 6:e21843.
120. Calza L, Manfredi R, Colangeli V, et al. Two-year treatment with rosuvastatin reduces carotid intima-media thickness in HIV type 1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy with asymptomatic atherosclerosis and moderate cardiovascular risk. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2013, 29:547-556.
121. Rasmussen LD, Kronborg G, Larsen CS, Pedersen C, Gerstoft J, Obel N Statin therapy and mortality in HIV-infected individuals; a Danish nationwide population-based cohort study. PLoS One 2013, 8:e52828.
122. Overton ET, Kitch D, Benson CA, et al. Effect of statin therapy in reducing the risk of serious non-AIDS-defining events and nonaccidental death. Clin Infect Dis 2013, 56:1471-1479.
123. Longenecker CT, Jiang Y, Debanne S, et al. Rosuvastatin arrests progression of carotid intima-media thickness in treated HIV. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI); Seattle, WA; Feb 26, 2015. Abstract 137.
124. Lang S, Lacombe JM, Mary-Krause M, et al. Is impact of statin therapy on all-cause mortality different in HIV-infected individuals compared to general population? Results from the FHDH-ANRS CO4 ccohort. PLoS One 2015, 10:e0133358.
125. Krsak M, Kent DM, Terrin N, Holcroft C, Skinner SC, Wanke C Myocardial infarction, stroke, and mortality in cART-treated HIV patients on statins. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2015, 29:307-313.
126. Moncunill G, Negredo E, Bosch L, et al. Evaluation of the anti-HIV activity of statins. AIDS 2005, 19:1697-1700.
127. Aberg JA, Zackin RA, Brobst SW, et al. A randomized trial of the efficacy and safety of fenofibrate versus pravastatin in HIV-infected subjects with lipid abnormalities: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 5087. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2005, 21:757-767.
128. Silverberg MJ, Leyden W, Hurley L, et al. Response to newly prescribed lipid-lowering therapy in patients with and without HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 2009, 150:301-313.
129. Calza L, Manfredi R, Colangeli V, Pocaterra D, Pavoni M, Chiodo F Rosuvastatin, pravastatin, and atorvastatin for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitors. Curr HIV Res 2008, 6:572-578.
130. Malvestutto CD, Ma Q, Morse GD, Underberg JA, Aberg JA Lack of pharmacokinetic interactions between pitavastatin and efavirenz or darunavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014, 67:390-396.
131. Navarro-González JF, Mora-Fernández C, Muros de Fuentes M, Donate-Correa J, Cazaña-Pérez V, García-Pérez J Effect of phosphate binders on serum inflammatory profile, soluble CD14, and endotoxin levels in hemodialysis patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011, 6:2272-2279.
132. Sandler NG, Zhang X, Bosch RJ, et al. Sevelamer does not decrease lipopolysaccharide or soluble CD14 levels but decreases soluble tissue factor, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and oxidized LDL cholesterol levels in individuals with untreated HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2014, 210:1549-1554. on behalf of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5296 Team.
133. Villar-García J, Hernández JJ, Güerri-Fernández R, et al. Effect of probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii) on microbial translocation and inflammation in HIV-treated patients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015, 68:256-263.
134. Fernández-Sender L, Alonso-Villaverde C, Rull A, et al. A possible role for CCR5 in the progression of atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients: a cross-sectional study. AIDS Res Ther 2013, 10:11.
135. Cipriani S, Francisci D, Mencarelli A, et al. Efficacy of the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc in reducing early, ritonavir-induced atherogenesis and advanced plaque progression in mice. Circulation 2013, 127:2114-2124.
136. Rusconi S, Vitiello P, Adorni F, et al. Maraviroc as intensification strategy in HIV-1 positive patients with deficient immunological response: an Italian randomized clinical trial. PLoS One 2013, 8:e80157.
137. Hunt PW, Shulman NS, Hayes TL, et al. The immunologic effects of maraviroc intensification in treated HIV-infected individuals with incomplete CD4+ T-cell recovery: a randomized trial. Blood 2013, 121:4635-4646.