Knee Ligament Function and Failure

Noyes' Knee Disorders: Surgery, Rehabilitation, Clinical Outcomes

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 89-113

  Noyes, Frank R ^a,b,c,d   Grood, Edward S ^a,c  

^a Cincinnati SportsMedicine Research and Education Foundation   (United States)

^b Cincinnati Sports Medicine and Orthopaedic Center Inc   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d University of Cincinnati   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84955624806     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-5474-0.00004-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (93)

1. A. Adams (1966) Effect of exercise upon ligament strength. Res Q 37 163-167.
2. A. Alm, H. Ekstrom and B. Stromberg (1974) Tensile strength of the anterior cruciate ligament in the dog. Acta Chir Scand Suppl 445 15-23.
3. S.P. Arnoczky, R.F. Warren and M.A. Ashlock (1986) Replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament using a patellar tendon allograft. An experimental study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 68 376-385.
4. T. Barfred (1971) Experimental rupture of the Achilles tendon. Comparison of experimental ruptures in rats of different ages and living under different conditions. Acta Orthop Scand 42 406-428.
5. B.D. Beynnon, B.C. Fleming, R.J. Johnson, et al. (1995) Anterior cruciate ligament strain behavior during rehabilitation exercises in vivo. Am J Sports Med 23 24-34.
6. B.D. Beynnon, R.J. Johnson, B.C. Fleming, et al. (1994) The measurement of elongation of anterior cruciate-ligament grafts in vivo. J Bone Joint Surg Am 76 520-531.
7. B.D. Beynnon, R.J. Johnson, B.C. Fleming, et al. (1997) The strain behavior of the anterior cruciate ligament during squatting and active flexion-extension. A comparison of an open and a closed kinetic chain exercise. Am J Sports Med 25 823-829.
8. J. Bradley, D. FitzPatrick, D. Daniel, et al. (1988) Orientation of the cruciate ligament in the sagittal plane. A method of predicting its length-change with flexion. J Bone Joint Surg Br 70 94-99.
9. L. Burmester (Eds) (1888) Lehrbuch der Kinematik Leipzig, Germany: A. Felix Verlag
10. C.A. Bush-Joseph, J.F. Cummings, M. Buseck, et al. (1996) Effect of tibial attachment location on the healing of the anterior cruciate ligament freeze model. J Orthop Res 14 534-541.
11. D.L. Butler, E.S. Grood, F.R. Noyes, et al. (1989) Mechanical properties of primate vascularized vs. nonvascularized patellar tendon grafts; changes over time. J Orthop Res 7 68-79.
12. D.L. Butler, E.S. Grood, F.R. Noyes and R.F. Zernicke (1978) Biomechanics of ligaments and tendons. R. Hutton (Eds) Exercise and Sports Science Review Vol. 6 Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press 125-182.
13. D.L. Butler, D.A. Hulse, M.D. Kay, et al. (1983) Biomechanics of cranial cruciate ligament reconstruction in the dog. II. Mechanical properties. Vet Surg 12 113-118.
14. W.G. Clancy, R.G. Narechania, T.D. Rosenberg, et al. (1981) Anterior and posterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in rhesus monkeys. A histological, microangiographic, and biomechanical analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 63 1270-1284.
15. H.R. Collins, J.C. Hughston, K.E. Dehaven, et al. (1974) The meniscus as a cruciate ligament substitute. J Sports Med 2 11-21.
16. R.R. Cooper (1972) Alterations during immobilization and regeneration of skeletal muscle in cats. J Bone Joint Surg Am 54 919-953.
17. R.R. Cooper and S. Misol (1970) Tendon and ligament insertion. A light and electron microscopic study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 52 1-20.
18. J.D.C. Crisp (1972) Properties of tendon and skin. Y.C. Fung, N. Perrone, M. Anliker (Eds) Foundations and Objectives NJ: Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs 141-177.
19. R. Crowninshield, M.H. Pope and R.J. Johnson (1976) An analytical model of the knee. J Biomech 9 397-405.
20. R.J. Curtis, J.C. Delee and D.J. Drez Jr. (1985) Reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament with freeze-dried fascia lata allografts in dogs. A preliminary report. Am J Sports Med 13 408-414.
21. D.H. Elliott (1965) Structure and function of mammalian tendon. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 40 392-421.
22. W.F. Enneking and M. Horowitz (1972) The intra-articular effects of immobilization on the human knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am 54 973-985.
23. R. Fick (Eds) (1911) Anatomie und mechanik der gelenke. Part I: anatomie der gelenke; Part II: allgemeine gelenk- und muskelmechanik; Part III: apezielle gelenk- und muskelmechanik Jena: Germany: Gustav Fischer
24. M. Geiser and J. Trueta (1958) Muscle action, bone rarefaction and bone formation: an experimental study. J Bone Joint Surg Br 40 282-311.
25. M.J. Gibbons, D.L. Butler, E.S. Grood, et al. (1991) Effects of gamma irradiation on the initial mechanical and material properties of goat bone–patellar tendon–bone allografts. J Orthop Res 9 209-218.
26. J.M. Ginsberg, E.J. Eyring and P.H. Curtiss Jr. (1969) Continuous compression of rabbit articular cartilage producing loss of hydroxyproline before loss of hexosamine. J Bone Joint Surg Am 51 467-474.
27. M.E. Grant and D.J. Prockop (1972) The biosynthesis of collagen. 1. N Engl J Med 286 194-199.
28. E.S. Grood, M.S. Hefzy and T.N. Lindenfeld (1989) Factors affecting the region of most isometric femoral attachments. Part I: the posterior cruciate ligament. Am J Sports Med 17 197-207.
29. C.D. Harner, G.A. Livesay, S. Kashiwaguchi, et al. (1995) Comparative study of the size and shape of human anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments. J Orthop Res 13 429-434.
30. C.D. Harner, J.W. Zerogeanes, G.A. Livesay, et al. (1995) The human posterior cruciate ligament complex: an interdisciplinary study. Ligament morphology and biomechanical evaluation. Am J Sports Med 23 736-745.
31. M.S. Hefzy and E.S. Grood (1986) Sensitivity of insertion locations on length patterns of anterior cruciate ligament fibers. J Biomech Eng 108 73-82.
32. M.S. Hefzy, E.S. Grood and F.R. Noyes (1989) Factors affecting the region of most isometric femoral attachments. Part II: the anterior cruciate ligament. Am J Sports Med 17 208-216.
33. J.P. Holden, E.S. Grood, D.L. Butler, et al. (1988) Biomechanics of fascia lata ligament replacements: early postoperative changes in the goat. J Orthop Res 6 639-647.
34. M.T. Horwitz (1939) Injuries of the ligaments of the knee joint. An experimental study. Arch Surg 38 946-954.
35. Z. Hruza, M. Chvapil and M. Dlouha (1967) The influence of age, sex and genetic factors on the mechanical and physico-chemical structural stability of collagen fibres in mice. Gerontologia 13 20-29.
36. B. Issekutz Jr., J.J. Blizzard, N.C. Birkhead and K. Rodahl (1966) Effect of prolonged bed rest on urinary calcium output. J Appl Physiol 21 1013-1020.
37. D.W. Jackson, E.S. Grood, S.P. Arnoczky, et al. (1987) Freeze-dried anterior cruciate ligament allografts. Preliminary studies in a goat model. Am J Sports Med 15 295-303.
38. D.W. Jackson, E.S. Grood, B.R. Cohn, et al. (1991) The effects of in situ freezing on the anterior cruciate ligament. An experimental study in goats. J Bone Joint Surg Am 73 201-213.
39. D.W. Jackson, E.S. Grood, J.D. Goldstein, et al. (1993) A comparison of patellar tendon autograft and allograft used for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in the goat model. Am J Sports Med 21 176-185.
40. D.W. Jackson, E.S. Grood, P. Wilcox, et al. (1988) The effects of processing techniques on the mechanical properties of bone–anterior cruciate ligament–bone allografts. An experimental study in goats. Am J Sports Med 16 101-105.
41. D.P. Jenkins and T.H. Cochran (1969) Osteoporosis: the dramatic effect of disuse of an extremity. Clin Orthop Relat Res 64 128-134.
42. L.E. Kazarian and H.E. Von Gierke (1969) Bone loss as a result of immobilization and chelation. Preliminary results in Macaca mulatta. Clin Orthop Relat Res 65 67-75.
43. H.A. Keim (1967) An analysis of periosteal attachment in human long bones of normal adults and adult paraplegics: an electron microscopic study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 54 207-214.
44. J.C. Kennedy, R.J. Hawkins, R.B. Willis and K.D. Danylchuck (1976) Tension studies of human knee ligaments. Yield point, ultimate failure, and disruption of the cruciate and tibial collateral ligaments. J Bone Joint Surg Am 58 350-355.
45. O. Kharmosh and P.D. Saville (1965) The effect of motor denervation on muscle and bone in the rabbit's hind limb. Acta Orthop Scand 36 361-370.
46. G.S. Laros, C.M. Tipton and R.R. Cooper (1971) Influence of physical activity on ligament insertions in the knees of dogs. J Bone Joint Surg Am 53 275-286.
47. K.L. Markolf, S. Hame, D.M. Hunter, et al. (2002) Effects of femoral tunnel placement on knee laxity and forces in an anterior cruciate ligament graft. J Orthop Res 20 1016-1024.
48. E.G. McFarland, B.F. Morrey, K.N. An and M.B. Wood (1986) The relationship of vascularity and water content to tensile strength in a patellar tendon replacement of the anterior cruciate in dogs. Am J Sports Med 14 436-448.
49. G.K. McPherson, H.V. Mendenhall, D.F. Gibbons, et al. (1985) Experimental mechanical and histologic evaluation of the Kennedy ligament augmentation device. Clin Orthop Relat Res 196 186-195.
50. A. Menschik (1977) The basic kinematic principle of the collateral ligaments demonstrated on the knee joint. G. Chapchal (Eds) Injuries of the Ligaments and Their Repair: Hand, Knee, Foot Stuttgart: Thieme 9-16.
51. A. Menschik (1974) [Mechanics of the knee-joint. 1 (author's trans.)]. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb 112 481-495.
52. L.J. Miltner, C.H. Hu and H.C. Fang (1937) Experimental joint sprain. Pathologic study. Arch Surg 35 234-240.
53. R.J. Minns, P.D. Soden and D.S. Jackson (1973) The role of the fibrous components and ground substance in the mechanical properties of biological tissues: a preliminary investigation. J Biomech 6 153-165.
54. W. Mueller (Eds) (1983) The Knee—Form, Function and Ligament Reconstruction New York: Springer-Verlag
55. G.Y. Ng, B.W. Oakes, O.W. Deacon, et al. (1995) Biomechanics of patellar tendon autograft for reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament in the goat: three-year study. J Orthop Res 13 602-608.
56. F.R. Noyes, J.L. DeLucas and P.J. Torvik (1974) Biomechanics of anterior cruciate ligament failure: an analysis of strain-rate sensitivity and mechanisms of failure in primates. J Bone Joint Surg Am 56 236-253.
57. F.R. Noyes and E.S. Grood (1976) The strength of the anterior cruciate ligament in humans and rhesus monkeys. Age-related and species-related changes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 58 1074-1082.
58. F.R. Noyes, E.S. Grood, N.S. Nussbaum and S.M. Cooper (1975) Biomechanical and ultrastructural changes in ligaments and tendons after local corticosteroid injections. Proceedings of the Orthopaedic Research Society, 1975 Annual Meeting. J Bone Joint Surg Am 57 876.
59. F.R. Noyes, E.S. Grood, N.S. Nussbaum and S.M. Cooper (1977) Effect of intra-articular corticosteroids on ligament properties: a biomechanical and histological study in rhesus knees. Clin Orthop 123 197-209.
60. F.R. Noyes, P.J. Torvik, W.B. Hyde and J.L. DeLucas (1974) Biomechanics of ligament failure. II. An analysis of immobilization, exercise, and reconditioning effects in primates. J Bone Joint Surg Am 56 1406-1418.
61. J.T.S. O'Connor and D. FitzPatrick (1990) Geometry of the knee. D. Daniel, W. Akeson, J. O'Connor (Eds) Knee Ligaments: Structure, Function, Injury, and Repair New York: Raven 163-199.
62. F.R. Partington and G.C. Wood (1963) The role of non-collagen components in the mechanical behaviour of tendon fibres. Biochim Biophys Acta 69 485-495.
63. M. Rappe, M. Horodyski, K. Meister and P.A. Indelicato (2007) Nonirradiated versus irradiated Achilles allograft: in vivo failure comparison. Am J Sports Med 35 1653-1658.
64. T.J. Rasmussen, S.M. Feder, D.L. Butler and F.R. Noyes (1994) The effects of 4 Mrad of gamma irradiation on the initial mechanical properties of bone-patellar tendon-bone grafts. Arthroscopy 10 188-197.
65. B.J. Rigby, N. Hiral, J.D. Spikes and H. Eyring (1959) The mechanical properties of rat tail tendon. J Gen Physiol 43 265-283.
66. A. Salehpour, D.L. Butler, F.S. Proch, et al. (1995) Dose-dependent response of gamma irradiation on mechanical properties and related biochemical composition of goat bone–patellar tendon–bone allografts. J Orthop Res 13 898-906.
67. G.J. Sammarco, A.H. Burstein, W.L. Davis and V.H. Frankel (1971) The biomechanics of torsional fractures: the effect of loading on ultimate properties. J Biomech 4 113-117.
68. R. Scapinelli (1968) Studies on the vasculature of the human knee joint. Acta Anat (Basel) 70 305-331.
69. H.E. Schwartz, M.J. Matava, F.S. Proch, et al. (2006) The effect of gamma irradiation on anterior cruciate ligament allograft biomechanical and biochemical properties in the caprine model at time zero and at 6 months after surgery. Am J Sports Med 34 1747-1755.
70. K. Shino and S. Horibe (1991) Experimental ligament reconstruction by allogeneic tendon graft in a canine model. Acta Orthop Belg 57(suppl 2), 44-53.
71. K. Shino, T. Kawasaki, H. Hirose, et al. (1984) Replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament by an allogeneic tendon graft. An experimental study in the dog. J Bone Joint Surg Br 66 672-681.
72. J.A. Sidles, R.V. Larson, J.L. Garbini, et al. (1988) Ligament length relationship in the moving knee. J Orthop Res 6 593-610.
73. J.W. Smith (1954) The elastic properties of the anterior cruciate ligament of the rabbit. J Anat 88 369-380.
74. D.L. Stilwell Jr. and D.J. Gray (1954) The microscopic structure of periosteum in areas of tendinous contact. Anat Rec 120 663-677.
75. H. Strasser (Eds) (1913) Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Gelenkmechanik Berlin: Springer
76. R.C. Thompson Jr. and C.A. Bassett (1970) Histological observations on experimentally induced degeneration of articular cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg Am 52 435-443.
77. E. Thorson, J.J. Rodrigo, P. Vasseur, et al. (1989) Replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament. A comparison of autografts and allografts in dogs. Acta Orthop Scand 60 555-560.
78. C.M. Tipton, S.L. James, W. Mergner and T.K. Tcheng (1970) Influence of exercise on strength of medial collateral knee ligaments of dogs. Am J Physiol 218 894-902.
79. C.M. Tipton, R.J. Schild and A.E. Flatt (1967) Measurement of ligamentous strength in rat knees. J Bone Joint Surg Am 49 63-72.
80. C.M. Tipton, R.J. Schild and R.J. Tomanek (1967) Influence of physical activity on the strength of knee ligaments in rats. Am J Physiol 212 783-787.
81. P.S. Trent, P.S. Walker and B. Wolf (1976) Ligament length patterns, strength, and rotational axes of the knee joint. Clin Orthop Relat Res 117 263-270.
82. T.J. van Rens, A.F. van den Berg, R. Huiskes and W. Kuypers (1986) Substitution of the anterior cruciate ligament: a long-term histologic and biomechanical study with autogenous pedicled grafts of the iliotibial band in dogs. Arthroscopy 2 139-154.
83. P.B. Vasseur, J.J. Rodrigo, S. Stevenson, et al. (1987) Replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament with a bone-ligament-bone anterior cruciate ligament allograft in dogs. Clin Orthop Relat Res 219 268-277.
84. A. Viidik (1966) Biomechanics and functional adaptation of tendons and joint ligaments. F.G. Evans (Eds) Studies on the Anatomy and Function of Bone and Joints Berlin: Springer-Verlag 17-39.
85. A. Viidik (1968) Elasticity and tensile strength of the anterior cruciate ligament in rabbits as influenced by training. Acta Physiol Scand 74 372-380.
86. A. Viidik (1973) Functional properties of collagenous tissues. Int Rev Connect Tissue Res 6 127-215.
87. H.G. Vogel (1974) Correlation between tensile strength and collagen content in rat skin. Effect of age and cortisol treatment. Connect Tissue Res 2 177-182.
88. W.R. Walsh, M.E. Wiggins, P.D. Fadale and M.G. Ehrlich (1995) Effects of a delayed steroid injection on ligament healing using a rabbit medial collateral ligament model. Biomaterials 16 905-910.
89. R.P. Welsh, I. Macnab and V. Riley (1971) Biomechanical studies of rabbit tendon. Clin Orthop Relat Res 81 171-177.
90. M.E. Wiggins, P.D. Fadale, M.G. Ehrlich and W.R. Walsh (1995) Effects of local injection of corticosteroids on the healing of ligaments. A follow-up report. J Bone Joint Surg Am 77 1682-1691.
91. S.L.-Y. Woo, J.M. Hollis, D.J. Adams, et al. (1991) Tensile properties of the human femur–anterior cruciate ligament–tibia complex. The effects of specimen age and orientation. Am J Sports Med 19 217-225.
92. S. Yoshiya, J.T. Andrish, M.T. Manley and T.W. Bauer (1987) Graft tension in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. An in vivo study in dogs. Am J Sports Med 15 464-470.
93. J. Zuckerman and G.A. Stull (1969) Effects of exercise on knee ligament separation force in rats. J Appl Physiol 26 716-719.