Career criminals in society

Career Criminals in Society

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-198

  DeLisi, Matt ^a  

^a IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84950140792     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4135/9781452204383     Document Type: Book

References (516)

1. Petersilia, J., & Honig, P. (1980). The prison experience of career criminals. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation;
2. Morris, N. (1951). The habitual criminal. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
3. Wolfgang, M. E., Figlio, R. M., & Sellin, T. (1972). Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
4. Hamparian, D. M., Schuster, R., Dinitz, S., & Conrad, J. (1978). The violent few: A study of dangerous juvenile offenders. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
5. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press
6. Wolfgang, M. E., Thornberry T. P., & Figlio, R. M. (1987). From boy to man, from delinquency to crime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
7. Tillman, R. (1987). The size of the "criminal population": The prevalence and incidence of adult arrest. Criminology, 25, 561-579.
8. DeLisi, M. (2001). Extreme career criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 25, 239-252.
9. Hedge, M. (2002, May 2). Career criminal Pierce finally finds his "perfect alibi." AAP Newsfeed, Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved October 1, 2003, from http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/docu-ment?_m=dc38ee235386
10. Sands, A. (2002, November 9). Condo loses court motion to halt disciplinary action. The Ottawa Citizen, p. D1
11. Canadian Press. (2002, February 21). "I’m not bad-just a career criminal," robber tells judge. Victoria Times Colonist, p. A8
12. Fisher, D. (2003, March 2). Anti-terror laws snare notorious career criminal. The Sunday Star-Times (Auckland, New Zealand), p. A6
13. Narain, J. (2003, March 28). The men accused of murdering Britons on house hunt; South American "career criminals" appear in court after discovery of bodies. London Daily Mail, p. 37. Retrieved October 2, 2003, from http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_meb9c62646d1
14. Black, D. W., & Larson, C. L. (1999). Bad boys, bad men: Confronting antisocial personality disorder. New York: Oxford University Press
15. Murphy, J. M. (1976). Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective: Similar kinds of disturbed behavior appear to be abnormal in diverse cultures. Science, 191, 1019-1028.
16. Cooke, D. J. (1998Psychopathy across cultures). D. J. Cooke, A. E. Forth, & R. D. Hare (Eds.). In, Psychopathy: Theory, research, and implications for society (pp. 13-45). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers
17. Kramer, R. C. (1982). From "habitual offenders" to "career criminals": The historical construction and development of criminal categories. Law & Human Behavior, 6, 273-293.
18. Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34, 575-607
19. Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., & Smith, P. (2002). Is the PCL-R really the "unparalleled" measure of offender risk? A lesson in knowledge cumulation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 397-426.
20. Hemphill, J. F., & Hare, R. D. (2004). Some misconceptions about the Hare PCL-R and risk assessment: A reply to Gendreau, Goggin, and Smith. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 203-243.
21. Arrigo, B. A., & Shipley, S. (2001). The confusion over psychopathy (I): Historical considerations. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 45, 325-344 (see pp. 328-329)
22. Hare, R. D., Clark, D., Grann, M., & Thornton, D. (2000). Psychopathy and the predictive validity of the PCL-R: An international perspective. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 623-645.
23. Tanenhaus, D. S. (2000). The evolution of transfer out of the juvenile court. In J. Fagan & F. Zimring (Eds.), The changing borders of juvenile justice: Transfer of adolescents to the criminal court (pp. 13-43). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
24. Shover, N. (1996). Great pretenders: Pursuits and careers of persistent thieves. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
25. Clinard, M., & Quinney R. (1973). Criminal behavior systems. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston
26. Gibbons, D. C., & Garrity D. L. (1962). Definitions and analysis of certain criminal types. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, & Police Science, 53, 27-35.
27. Gibbons, D. C. (1988). Some critical observations on criminal types and criminal careers. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 15, 8-23.
28. Glaser, D. (1972). Adult crime and social policy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Reviews of the methodological and substantive weaknesses of typological studies appear
29. Bursik, R. J., Jr. (1989). Erickson could never have imagined: Recent extensions of birth cohort studies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 5, 389-396.
30. Gibbons, D. C. (1975). Offender typologies: Two decades later. British Journal of Criminology, 15, 140-156.
31. D’Ungar, A. V., Land, K. C., McCall, P. L., & Nagin, D. S. (1998). How many latent classes of delinquent/criminal careers? Results from mixed Poisson regression analyses. American Journal of Sociology, 103,1593-1630
32. Francis, B., Soothill, K., & Fligelstone, R. (2004). Identifying patterns and pathways of offending behavior: A new approach to typologies of crime. European Journal of Criminology, 1, 47-87.
33. Eggleston, E. P., Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (2004). Methodological sensitivities to latent class analysis of long-term criminal trajectories. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 20,1-26 (quotation from p. 24).
34. Hamparian, D. M., Schuster, R., Dinitz, S., & Conrad, J. (1978). The violent few: A study of dangerous juvenile offenders. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
35. McCord, J. (1978). A thirty-year follow-up of treatment effects. American Psychologist, 32, 284-289.
36. McCord, J. (1979). Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1477-1486.
37. McCord, J., & McCord, W. (1958). The effects of parental role model on criminality. Journal of Social Issues, 14, 66-75.
38. McCord, J., & McCord, W. (1959). A follow-up report on the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 322, 89-96.
39. Shannon, L. W. (1988). Criminal career continuity: Its social context. New York: Human Services Press
40. Shannon, L. W. (1991). Changing patterns of delinquency and crime: A longitudinal study in Racine. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
41. Petersilia, J., Greenwood, P. W., & Lavin, M. (1978). Criminal careers of habitual felons. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation
42. Peterson, M. P., Braiker, H. B., & Polich, S. M. (1980). Doing crime: A survey of California prison inmates. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation
43. Chaiken, J. M., & Chaiken, M. R. (1982). Varieties of criminal behavior. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation
44. Canela-Cacho, J. A., Blumstein, A., & Cohen, J. (1997). Relationship between the offending frequency (lambda) of imprisoned and free offenders. Criminology, 35,133-175.
45. Dunford, F. W., & Elliott, D. S. (1984). Identifying career offenders using self-reported data. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 21, 57-86.
46. Elliott, D. S. (1994). Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termination-the American Society of Criminology 1993 presidential address. Criminology, 32, 1-21.
47. Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Morse, B. (1986). Self-reported violent offending: A descriptive analysis of juvenile violent offenders and their offending careers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 472-514.
48. Thornberry T. P., Huizinga, D., & Loeber, R. (1995The prevention of serious delinquency and violence: Implications from the program of research on the causes and correlates of delinquency). J. C. Howell, B. Krisberg, J. D. Hawkins, & J. J. Wilson (Eds.). In Serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders (pp. 213-237). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
49. Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.). (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
50. Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Springer-Verlag
51. Huizinga, D., Loeber, R., Thornberry, T. P., & Cothern, L. (2000, November). Co-occurrence of serious and violent juvenile offending and other problem behaviors. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Program, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
52. Loeber, R., et al. (2001). Male mental health problems, psychopathy, and personality traits: Key findings from the first 14 years of the Pittsburgh Youth Study. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4,273-297.
53. Brennan, P., Mednick, S., & John, R. (1989). Specialization in violence: Evidence of a criminal subgroup. Criminology, 27, 437-453.
54. Hamalainen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (1995). Aggressive and non-prosocial behaviors as precursors of criminality. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 4, 6-21.
55. Pulkkinen, L., et al. (2000). Child behavior and adult personality: Comparisons between criminality groups in Finland and Sweden. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 10,155-169
56. Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1991). Stability and change in criminal behavior up to age 30. British Journal of Criminology, 31, 327-346.
57. Stattin, H., Magnusson, D., & Reichel, H. (1989). Criminal activity at different ages: A study based on a Swedish longitudinal research population. British Journal of Criminology, 29, 368-385.
58. Kyvsgaard, B. (2003). The criminal career: The Danish longitudinal study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
59. Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Nagin, D. S. (2000). Offending trajectories in a New Zealand birth cohort. Criminology, 38, 525-552.
60. Moffitt, T. E. (1993). "Life-course persistent" and "adolescence-limited" antisocial behavior: A developmental typology. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701.
61. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behavior: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
62. Friday, P. C., Ren, X., Weitekamp, E., & Leuven, K. U. (2003). Delinquency in a Chinese birth cohort, final report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
63. Chu, M. (2002). Incarcerated Chinese men: Their life experiences and criminal onset. British Journal of Criminology, 42, 250-266.
64. Liu, J., Messner, S., & Liska, A. (1997). Chronic offenders in China. International Criminal Justice Review, 7, 31-45.
65. Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Roth, J., & Visher, C. (Eds.). (1986). Criminal careers and "career criminals." Washington, DC: National Academy Press
66. DeLisi, M. (2001). Extreme career criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 25, 239-252.
67. Howell, J. C., B. Krisberg, J. D. Hawkins, & J. J. Wilson. (Eds.). (1995). Serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
68. Farrington, D. P., et al. (2003). Comparing delinquency careers in court records and self-reports. Criminology, 41, 933-956 (quotation from p. 953).
69. DeLisi, M. (2003). Criminal careers behind bars. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 653-669.
70. Cruise, K. R., Colwell, L. H., Lyons, P. M., & Baker, M. D. (2003). Prototypical analysis of adolescent psychopathy: Investigating the juvenile justice perspective. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 829-846.
71. Danner, T. A., Blount, W R., Silverman, I. J., & Vega, M. (1995). The female chronic offender: Exploring life contingency and offense history dimensions for incarcerated female offenders. Women & Criminal Justice, 6, 45-65.
72. DeLisi, M. (2002). Not just a boy’s club: An empirical assessment of female career criminals. Women & Criminal Justice, 13, 27-45.
73. Maxwell, S., & Maxwell, C. (2000). Explaining the "criminal careers" of prostitutes within the nexus of drug use, drug selling, and other illicit activities. Criminology, 38, 787-810.
74. Warren, M., & Rosenbaum, J. (1987). Criminal careers of female offenders. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 13, 393-418.
75. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behavior (pp. 214-225). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
76. Bernburg, J. G., & Krohn, M. D. (2003). Labeling, life chances, and adult crime: The direct and indirect effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in early adulthood. Criminology, 41, 1287-1318.
77. Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American Journal of Sociology, 108, 937-975.
78. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1997). A life-course theory of cumulative disadvantage and the stability of delinquency. Advances in Criminological Theory, 7,133-162.
79. Elliott, D. S. (1994). Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termination. The American Society of Criminology 1993 Presidential Address. Criminology, 32, 1-21.
80. Hamparian, D. M., et al. (1978). The violent few: A study of dangerous juvenile offenders. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
81. Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.). (1998) Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
82. Piquero, A. R., & Buka, S. L. (2002). Linking juvenile and adult patterns of criminal activity in the Providence cohort of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 259-272.
83. Piquero, A. R., MacDonald, J. M., & Parker, K. F. (2002). Race, local life circumstances, and criminal activity. Social Science Quarterly, 83, 654-670.
84. Kempf-Leonard, K., Tracy, P. E., & Howell, J. C. (2001). Serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders: The relationship of delinquency careers types to adult criminality. Justice Quarterly, 18, 449-478.
85. Nevares, D., Wolfgang, M. E., & Tracy, P. E. (1990). Delinquency in Puerto Rico: The 1970 birth cohort study. New York: Greenwood Press
86. Shannon (1991). Changing patterns of delinquency and crime: A longitudinal study in Racine. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
87. Loeber, R., & Dishion, T. (1983). Early predictors of male delinquency: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 68-99.
88. Huesmann, L. R., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generation. Developmental Psychology, 20,1120-1134 (p. 1133).
89. Dean, C. W., Brame, R., & Piquero, A. R. (1996). Criminal propensities, discrete groups of offenders, and persistence in crime. Criminology, 34, 547-575.
90. DeLisi, M. (2004). Zeroing in on early arrest onset: Results from a population of extreme career criminals. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Iowa State University, Ames
91. Piquero, A. R., & Chung, H. L. (2001). On the relationship between gender, early onset, and the seriousness of offending. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29, 189-206.
92. Piquero, A., Paternoster, R., Mazerolle, P., Brame, R., & Dean, C. W. (1999). Onset age and offense specialization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36, 275-299.
93. Farrington, D. P. (1997Human development and criminal careers). M. Maguire, R. Morgan, & R. Reiner (Eds.). In, The Oxford handbook of criminology (pp. 361-408). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
94. Farrington, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of adult antisocial personality and adult convictions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 605-622.
95. Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. New York: The Free Press (p. 30).
96. Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Das, S., & Moitra, S. D. (1988). Specialization and seriousness during adult criminal careers. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 4, 303-345.
97. Brennan, P., Mednick, S., & John, R. (1989). Specialization in violence: Evidence of a criminal subgroup. Criminology, 27, 437-453.
98. Britt, C. L. (1996). The measurement of specialization and escalation in the criminal career: An alternative modeling strategy. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 12,193-222
99. Bursik, R. J., Jr. (1980). Dynamics of specialization in juvenile offenders. Social Forces, 58, 850-864.
100. Schwaner, S. L. (1998). Patterns of violent specialization: Predictors of recidivism for a cohort of parolees. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 23, 1-17.
101. Schwaner, S. L. (2000). "Stick ‘em up, buddy": Robbery, lifestyle, and specialization within a cohort of parolees. Journal of Criminal Justice, 28,371-384.
102. Britt, C. L. (1994 Versatility). T. Hirschi & M. Gottfredson (Eds.). In, The generality of deviance (pp. 173-192). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
103. DeLisi, M. (2003). The imprisoned nonviolent drug offender: Specialized martyr or versatile career criminal? American Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 167-182
104. Mazerolle, P., Brame, R., Paternoster, R., Piquero, A., & Dean, C. (2000). Onset age, persistence, and offending versatility: Comparisons across gender. Criminology, 38, 1143-1172.
105. Piquero, A. (2000). Frequency, specialization, and violence in offending careers. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 392-418.
106. Simon, L. M. J. (2000). An examination of the assumptions of specialization, mental disorder, and dangerousness in sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 275-308.
107. Stickle, T. R., & Blechman, E. A. (2002). Aggression and fire: Antisocial behavior in firesetting and nonfiresetting juvenile offenders. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 24,177-193.
108. Tracy, P. E., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (1996). Continuity and discontinuity in criminal careers. New York: Plenum.
109. Petersilia, J., Greenwood, P. G., & Lavin, M. (1978). Criminal careers of habitual felons. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice
110. House of Commons. (1895). Report of the Committee on Prisons. London: Author. 10.4135/9781452204383.n2
111. Nagin, D. S., & Paternoster, R. (2000). Population heterogeneity and state dependence: State of evidence and directions for future research. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16,117-144.
112. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press (p. 97).
113. Farrington, D. P., & Loeber, R. (1999Transatlantic replicability of risk factors in the development of delinquency). P. Cohen & C. Slomkowski (Eds.). In, Historical and geographical influences on psychopathology (pp. 299-329). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
114. Weeks, R., & Widom, C. S. (1998). Self-reports of early childhood victimization among incarcerated adult male felons. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 346-361.
115. Haapasalo, J., & Pokela, E. (1999). Child-rearing and child abuse antecedents of criminality. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4, 107-127.
116. Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence. Violence & Victims, 4, 79-100.
117. Farrington, D. P., & West, D. J. (1993). Criminal, penal, and life histories of chronic offenders: Risk and protective factors and early identification. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 3, 492-523.
118. Juby H., & Farrington, D. P. (2001). Disentangling the link between disrupted families and delinquency. British Journal of Criminology, 41, 22-40.
119. Nagin, D. S., Pogarsky G., & Farrington, D. P. (1997). Adolescent mothers and the criminal behavior of their children. Law & Society Review, 31,127-162
120. Pogarsky, G., Lizotte, A. J., & Thornberry T. P. (2003). The delinquency of children born to young mothers: Results from the Rochester Youth Development Study. Criminology, 41,1249-1286.
121. McCord, J. (2000). Developmental trajectories and intentional actions. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 237-253.
122. Farrington, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of adult antisocial personality and adult convictions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 605-622.
123. Herrnstein, R. J. (1995). Criminogenic traits. In J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime (pp. 39-63). San Francisco: ICS Press.
124. Herpertz, S. C., & Sass, H. (2000). Emotional deficiency and psychopathy. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 567-580.
125. Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432-444.
126. Patterson, G. R. (1995Coercion as a basis for early age of onset for arrest). J. McCord (Ed.). In, Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 81-105). New York: Cambridge University Press
127. Patterson, G. R., & Southamer-Loeber, M. (1984). The correlation of family management practices and delinquency. Child Development, 55,1299-1307.
128. Patterson, G. R., & Dishion, T. J. (1985). Contributions of families and peers to delinquency. Criminology, 23, 63-79.
129. Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329-335.
130. Patterson, G. R., & Yoerger, K. (1995). Two different models for adolescent physical trauma and for early arrest. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 5, 411-423.
131. Nagin, D. S., Farrington, D. P., & Moffitt, T. E. (1995). Life-course trajectories of different types of offenders. Criminology, 33, 111-139.
132. Piquero, A. R., & Brezina, T. (2001). Testing Moffitt’s account of adolescence-limited delinquency. Criminology, 39, 353-370.
133. McCabe, K. M., Hough, R., Wood, P. A., & Yeh, M. (2001). Childhood and adolescent onset conduct disorder: A test of the developmental taxonomy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 305-316.
134. Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: Boys’ development trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893-910.
135. Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L., & Unnever, J. D. (2002). The relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to crime and delinquency: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 4, 344-360.
136. Farrington, D. P., Barnes, G., & Lambert, S. (1996). The concentration of offending in families. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 1, 47-63.
137. Henry, B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, L., & Earls, F. (1993). Early family predictors of child and adolescent antisocial behavior: Who are the mothers of delinquents? Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 3, 97-118
138. Henry, B., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and nonviolent criminal convictions: Age 3 to age 18. Developmental Psychology, 32, 614-623.
139. Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2000). Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factor, early interventions, and policy implications. Developmental and Psychopathology, 12, 737-762.
140. Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Rowe, R., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2000). Developmental trajectories of aggressive and non-aggressive conduct problems. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 199-221.
141. Robins, L. N., & O’Neal, P. (1958). Mortality, mobility, and crime: Problem children thirty years later. American Sociological Review, 23, 162-171.
142. Robins, L. N., & Wish, E. (1977). Childhood deviance as a developmental process. Social Forces, 56, 448-473.
143. DeLisi, M. (2001). Scaling archetypal criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 77-92.
144. Gibson, G. L., Piquero, A. R., & Tibbetts, S. G. (2001). The contribution of family adversity and verbal IQ to criminal behavior. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45, 574-592.
145. Kratzer, L., & Hodgins, S. (1999). The typology of offenders: A test of Moffitt’s theory among males and females from childhood to age 30. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 9, 57-73.
146. Krueger, R. F., Schmutte, P. S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Campbell, C., & Silva, P. A. (1994). Personality traits are linked to crime among men and women: Evidence from a birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 328-338.
147. Krueger, R. F., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2000). Epidemiological personology: The unifying role of personality in population-based research on problem behaviors. Journal of Personality, 68, 967-998.
148. Moffitt, T. E., Lynam, D., & Silva, P. A. (1994). Neuropsychological tests predicting persistent male delinquency. Criminology, 32, 277-300.
149. Piquero, A. R. (2001). Testing Moffitt’s neuropsychological variation hypothesis for the prediction of life-course persistent offending. Psychology, Crime & Law, 7,193-215.
150. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
151. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (2003). Life-course desisters? Trajectories of crime among delinquent boys followed to age 70. Criminology, 41, 555-592.
152. Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (1988). Unraveling families and delinquency: A reanalysis of the Gluecks’ data. Criminology, 26, 355-380.
153. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1994). Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: A new look at structure and process in a classic study. Child Development, 65, 523-540.
154. Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (1993). Turning points in the life course: Why change matters to the study of crime. Criminology, 31, 301-326 (p. 320)
155. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1990). Crime and deviance over the life course: The salience of adult social bonds. American Sociological Review, 55, 609-627.
156. Simons, R. L., Wu, C., Conger, R. D., & Lorenz, F. O. (1994). Two routes to delinquency: Differences between early and late starters in the impact of parenting and deviant peers. Criminology, 32, 247-276 (p. 269).
157. Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. (1998). A test of latent trait versus life-course perspectives on the stability of adolescent antisocial behavior. Criminology, 36, 901-927.
158. Warr, M. (1998). Life-course transitions and desistance from crime. Criminology, 36,183-216
159. Wright, B. R. E., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1999). Low self-control, social bonds, and crime: Social causation, social selection, or both? Criminology, 37, 479-514
160. Wright, B. R. E., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (2001). The effects of social ties on crime vary by criminal propensity: A life-course model of interdependence. Criminology, 39, 321-352.
161. Ouimet, M., & Le Blanc, M. (1996). The role of life experiences in the continuation of the adult criminal career. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 6, 73-97.
162. Thornberry T. P. (1987). Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Criminology, 25, 863-892.
163. Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Farnworth, M., & Jang, S. J. (1991). Testing interactional theory: An examination of reciprocal causal relationships among family, school, and delinquency. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 3-35.
164. Bushway S. D., Thornberry, T. P., & Krohn, M. D. (2003). Desistance as a developmental process: A comparison of static and dynamic approaches. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 129-153.
165. Jang, S. J. (1999). Age-varying effects of family, school, and peers on delinquency: A multilevel modeling test of interactional theory. Criminology, 37, 643-686.
166. Ireland, T. O., Smith, C. A., & Thornberry, T. P. (2002). Developmental issues in the impact of child maltreatment on later delinquency and drug use. Criminology, 40, 359-400.
167. Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Farnworth, M., & Jang, S. J. (1994). Delinquent peers, beliefs, and delinquent behavior: A longitudinal test of interactional theory. Criminology, 32, 47-83.
168. Catalano, R. F., & Hawkins, J. D. (1996The social development model: A theory of antisocial behavior). J. D. Hawkins (Ed.). In, Delinquency and crime: Current theories (pp. 149-197). New York: Cambridge University Press
169. Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73-97.
170. Fleming, C. B., Catalano, R. F., Oxford, M. L., & Harachi, T. W. (2002). A test of the generalizability of the social development model across gender and income groups with longitudinal data from the elementary school developmental periods. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18, 423-439.
171. Ayers, C. D., Williams, J. H., Hawkins, J. D., Peterson, P. L., Catalano, R. F., & Abbott, R. D. (1999). Assessing correlates of onset, escalation, de-escalation, and desistance of delinquent behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 15, 277-306.
172. Hartwell, S. W. (2000). Juvenile delinquency and the social development model: The retrospective accounts of homeless substance abusers. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 11, 217-233.
173. Herrenkohl, T. I., Huang, B., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Smith, B. H. (2001). A comparison of social development processes leading to violent behavior in late adolescence for childhood initiators and adolescent initiators of violence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 45-63.
174. Huang, B., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hawkins, J. D., & Abbott, R. D. (2001). Modeling mediation in the etiology of violent behavior in adolescence: A test of the social development model. Criminology, 39, 75-108.
175. Lipsey, M. W. (1999). Can intervention rehabilitate serious delinquents? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 564,142-166 (p. 163).
176. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Brewer, D. D. (1995). Preventing serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offending: Effective strategies from conception to age 6. In J. C. Howell, B. Krisberg, J. D. Hawkins, & J. J. Wilson (Eds.), Serious, violent, & chronic juvenile offenders (pp. 47-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage (p. 51).
177. Hawkins, J. D., von Cleve, E., & Catalano, R. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208-217.
178. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226-234.
179. Greenwood, P. W. (2002Juvenile crime and juvenile justice). J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.). In, Crime: Public policies for crime control (pp. 75-108). Oakland, CA: ICS Press
180. Howell, J. C., Krisberg, B., Hawkins, J. D., & Wilson, J. J. (Eds.). (1995). Serious, violent, & chronic juvenile offenders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
181. Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.). (1998). Serious & violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
182. Mihalic, S., Irwin, K., Elliott, D. S., Fagan, A., & Hansen, D. (2001). Blueprints for violence prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
183. Olds, D., Henderson, C., Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey D., Pettitt, L., Sidora, K., Morris, P., & Powers, J. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1238-1244.
184. Olds, D., Hill, P., Mihalic, S., & O’Brien, R. (1998). Blueprints for violence prevention, book seven: Prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.
185. Lally J. R., Mangione, P. L., & Honig, A. S. (1988The Syracuse University family development research project: Long-term impact of an early intervention with low-income children and their families). D. R. Powell (Ed.). In, Advanced in applied developmental psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 79-104). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
186. Berrueta-Clement, J. R., Schweinhart, L. J., Barnett, W. S., Epstein, A. S., & Weikart, D. P. (1984). Changed lives: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through age 19. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope
187. Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., & Weikart, D. P. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project through age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope.
188. Webster-Stratton, C. (2000). The Incredible Years training series. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
189. Mihalic, S., Irwin, K., Elliott, D. S., Fagan, A., & Hansen, D. (2001). Blueprints for violence prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (pp. 5-6).
190. Henggeler, S. W., Mihalic, S. F., Rone, L., Thomas, C., & Timmons-Mitchell, J. (1998). Blueprints for violence prevention, book six: Multisystemic therapy. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.
191. Tremblay R. E., et al. (1992). Parent and child training to prevent early onset of delinquency: The Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental Study. In J. McCord & R. Tremblay (Eds.), Preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence (pp. 117-138). New York: Guilford.
192. Bavolek, S. J. (2000, November). The nurturing parenting programs. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
193. Horney J., Osgood, D. W., & Marshall, I. H. (1995). Criminal careers in the short-term: Intra-individual variability in crime and its relation to local life circumstances. American Sociological Review, 60, 655-673.
194. Laub, J. H., Nagin, D. S., & Sampson, R. J. (1998). Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process. American Sociological Review, 63, 225-238.
195. Osgood, D. W., Johnston, L. D., O’Malley P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1988). The generality of deviance in late adolescence and early adulthood. American Sociological Review, 53, 81-93.
196. Piquero, A. R., MacDonald, J. M., & Parker, K. F (2002). Race, local life circumstances, and criminal activity. Social Science Quarterly, 83, 654-670
197. Uggen, C. (2000). Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism. American Sociological Review, 67, 529-546.
198. Warr, M. (1998). Life-course transitions and desistance from crime. Criminology, 36,183-216.
199. Dannefer, D. (1984). Adult development and social theory: A paradigmatic reappraisal. American Sociological Review, 49,100-116. 10.4135/9781452204383.n3
200. Herrnstein, R. J. (1995). Criminogenic traits. In J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime (pp. 39-64). San Francisco: ICS Press.
201. DeLisi, M. (2003). Conservatism and common sense: The criminological career of James Q. Wilson. Justice Quarterly, 20, 661-674.
202. DeLisi, M. (2003). Self-control pathology: The elephant in the living room. Advances in Criminological Theory, 12, 21-38.
203. Arrigo, B. A., & Shipley, S. (2001). The confusion over psychopathy (I): Historical considerations. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 45, 325-344.
204. Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. T. (1930). 500 criminal careers. New York: Knopf (p. 157).
205. Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. T. (1943). Criminal careers in retrospect. New York: The Commonwealth Fund (pp. 64, 120)
206. Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. T. (1950). Unraveling juvenile delinquency. New York: The Commonwealth Fund (pp. 239-240).
207. Levy, D. M. (1942). Psychopathic personality and crime. Journal of Educational Sociology, 16, 99-114.
208. Gough, H. (1948). A sociological theory of psychopathy. American Journal of Sociology, 53, 359-366.
209. Robins, L., & O’Neal, P. (1958). Mortality, mobility, and crime: Problem children 30 years later. American Sociological Review, 23, 162-171.
210. Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up: A sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
211. Cleckley H. (1941). The mask of sanity. St. Louis, MO: Mosby
212. Hare, R. D. (1970). Psychopathy: Theory and research. New York: Wiley
213. Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare psychopathy checklist-revised. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health System
214. Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: The Guilford Press
215. Hare, R. D. (1996). Psychopathy: A clinical construct whose time has come. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 23, 25-54.
216. Blair, R. J. R. (1997). Moral reasoning and the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 731-739.
217. Blair, R. J. R. (1999). Responsiveness to distress cues in the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 135-145.
218. Forth, A. E. (1995). Psychopathy in adolescent offenders: Assessment, family background, and violence. Issues in Criminological & Legal Psychology, 24, 42-44.
219. Lynam, D. R. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209-234
220. Lynam, D. R. (1997). Pursuing the psychopath: Capturing the fledgling psychopath in a nomological net. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 1-13.
221. Skilling, T. A., Quinsey V. L., & Craig, W. M. (2001). Evidence of a taxon underlying serious antisocial behavior in boys. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 28, 450-470.
222. Edens, J. F., Skeem, J. L., Cruise, K. R., & Cauffman, E. (2001). Assessment of "juvenile psychopathy" and its association with violence: A critical review. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 19, 53-80.
223. Johnstone, L., & Cooke, D. J. (2004). Psychopathic-like traits in childhood: Conceptual and measurement concerns. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22,103-125.
224. Gretton, H. M., McBride, M., Hare, R. D., Shaughnessy R. O., & Kumka, G. (2001). Psychopathy and recidivism in adolescent sex offenders. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 28, 427-449.
225. Hare, R. D., McPherson, L. M., & Forth, A. E. (1988). Male psychopaths and their criminal careers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 710-714.
226. Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (1991). Psychopathy and violent recidivism. Law & Human Behavior, 15, 625-637.
227. Harris, G T., Skilling, T. A., & Rice, M. E. (2001The construct of psychopathy). M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.). In, Crime and justice: An annual review of research (pp. 197-264). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
228. Hemphill, J. F., Templeman, R., Wong, S., & Hare, R. D. (1998Psychopathy and crime: Recidivism and criminal careers). D. Cooke, A. Forth, & R. Hare (Eds.). In, Psychopathy: Theory, research, and implications for society (pp. 375-399). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers
229. Simourd, D. J., & Hoge, R. D. (2000). Criminal psychopathy: A risk-and-need perspective. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 27, 256-272.
230. Porter, S., Woodworth, M., Earle, J., Drugge, J., & Boer, D. (2003). Characteristics of sexual homicides committed by psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. Law & Human Behavior, 27, 459-470.
231. Dodge, K. A. (2001). The science of youth violence prevention: Progressing from developmental epidemiology to efficacy to effectiveness to public policy. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20, 63-70.
232. Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678-1683.
233. Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349-371.
234. Rutter, M. L. (1999). Psychosocial adversity and child psychopathology. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 480-493.
235. Rutter, M. (2002). Nature, nurture, and development: From evangelism through science toward policy and practice. Child Development, 73, 1-21.
236. Rutter, M., Giller, H., & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior by young people. New York: Cambridge University Press.
237. Shipley, S., & Arrigo, B. A. (2001). The confusion over psychopathy (II): Implications for forensic (correctional) practice. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45, 407-420.
238. Martens, W. H. J. (2000). Antisocial and psychopathic personality disorders: Causes, course, and remission-A review article. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44, 406-430.
239. Walters, G. D., White, T. W., & Denney D. (1991). The lifestyle criminality screening form: Preliminary data. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 18, 406-418.
240. Walters, G. D. (2003). Predicting criminal justice outcomes with the psychopathy checklist and lifestyle criminality screening form: A meta-analytic comparison. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 89-102.
241. Walters, G. D. (1995). The psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles: I. Reliability and preliminary validity. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 22, 307-325.
242. Walters, G. D. (1996). The psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles: Part III. Predictive validity. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 40, 105-112.
243. Walters, G. D., Trgovac, M., Rychlec, M., Di Fazio, R., & Olson, J. R. (2002). Assessing change with the psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles: A controlled analysis and multisite cross-validation. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 29, 308-331.
244. Raine, A., Brennan, P., & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 984-988.
245. Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311-326.
246. Raine, A. (1993). The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press (p. 320).
247. Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Lalumiere, M. (2001). Criminal violence: The role of psychopathy, neurodevelopmental insults, and antisocial parenting. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 402-426.
248. Wilson, J. Q., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985). Crime and human nature: The definitive study of the causes of crime. New York: Simon & Schuster (p. 40).
249. Wright, R. A., & Miller, J. M. (1998). Taboo until today? The coverage of biological arguments in criminology textbooks, 1961 to 1970 and 1987 to 1996. Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 1-19.
250. Wilson & Herrnstein (1985), p. 42, see note 20.
251. Herrnstein, R. J. (1995Criminogenic traits). J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.). In, Crime (pp. 39-64). San Francisco: ICS Press
252. Wilson, J. Q. (1983). Thinking about crime (Rev. ed.). New York: Vintage Books.
253. DeLisi, M. (2003). Conservatism and common sense: The criminological career of James Q. Wilson. Justice Quarterly, 20, 661-674.
254. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press (p. 85).
255. Akers, R. L. (1991). Self-control as a general theory of crime. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 7, 201-211.
256. Barlow, H. D. (1991). Explaining crime and analogous acts, or the unrestrained will grab at pleasure whenever they can. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 82, 229-242.
257. Geis, G. (2000). On the absence of self-control as the basis for a general theory of crime: A critique. Theoretical Criminology, 4, 35-54.
258. Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (2000). In defense of self-control. Theoretical Criminology, 4, 55-69.
259. DeLisi, M. (2001). It’s all in the record: Assessing self-control theory with an offender sample. Criminal Justice Review, 26,1-16
260. DeLisi, M. (2001). Designed to fail: Self-control and involvement in the criminal justice system. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 131-148.
261. Evans, T. D., et al. (1997). The social consequences of self-control: Testing the general theory of crime. Criminology, 35, 475-504.
262. Gibbs, J., & Giever, D. (1995). Self-control and its manifestation among university students: An empirical test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory. Justice Quarterly, 12, 231-256.
263. Higgins, G. E. (2002). General theory of crime and deviance: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Crime & Justice, 25, 71-96.
264. Higgins, G. E. (2004). Gender and self-control theory: Are there differences in the measures and the theory’s causal model? Criminal Justice Studies, 17, 31-53
265. Junger, M., & Tremblay R. (1999). Self-control, accidents, and crime. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 26, 485-501.
266. Keane, C., Maxim, P., & Teevan, J. (1993). Drinking and driving, self-control, and gender: Testing a general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 30-46.
267. Longshore, D., & Turner, S. (1998). Self-control and criminal opportunity: Cross-sectional test of the general theory of crime. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 25, 81-98.
268. Perrone, D., Sullivan, C. J., Pratt, T. C., & Margaryan, S. (2004). Parental efficacy, self-control, and delinquency: A test of a general theory of crime on a nationally representative sample of youth. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 298-312.
269. Piquero, A., & Tibbetts, S. (1996). Specifying the direct and indirect effects of low self-control and situational factors in offenders’ decision making: Toward a more complete model of rational offending. Justice Quarterly, 13, 481-510.
270. Schreck, C. (1999). Criminal victimization and low self-control: An extension and test of a general theory of crime. Justice Quarterly, 16, 633-654.
271. Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931-964 (p. 952).
272. Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. (1983). Age and the explanation of crime. American Journal of Sociology, 89, 552-584.
273. Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1987). The methodological adequacy of longitudinal research on crime. Criminology, 25, 581-614 (p. 608)
274. Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1988). Science, public policy, and the career paradigm. Criminology, 26, 37-55.
275. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1986). The true value of Lambda would appear to be zero: An essay on career criminals, criminal careers, selective incapacitation, cohort studies, and related topics. Criminology, 24, 213-234.
276. Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., & Farrington, D. P. (1988). Criminal career research: Its value for criminology. Criminology, 26, 1-35.
277. Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., & Farrington, D. P. (1988). Longitudinal and criminal career research: Further clarifications. Criminology, 26, 57-74.
278. Tittle, C. R. (1988). Two empirical regularities (maybe) in search of an explanation: Commentary on the age/crime debate. Criminology, 26, 75-85.
279. Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (2001). Control theory and the life-course perspective. In A. Piquero & P. Mazerolle (Eds.), Life-course criminology: Contemporary and classic readings (pp. 229-241). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (p. 230).
280. Nagin, D. S., & Paternoster, R. (2000). Population heterogeneity and state dependence: State of evidence and directions for future research. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 117-144 (p. 133).
281. Bartusch, D. J., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Is age important? Testing a general versus a developmental theory of antisocial behavior. Criminology, 35, 13-48 (p. 41)
282. Paternoster, R., & Brame, R. (1997). Multiple routes to delinquency? A test of developmental and general theories of crime. Criminology, 35, 49-84 (p. 76)
283. Benda, B. B., & Toombs, N. J. (2002). Two preeminent theoretical models: A proportional hazard rate analysis of recidivism. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 1-12.
284. Cernkovich, S. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2001). Stability and change in antisocial behavior: The transition from adolescence to early adulthood. Criminology, 39, 371-410.
285. Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Nagin, D. S. (2000). Offending trajectories in a New Zealand birth cohort. Criminology, 38, 525-552.
286. Pulkkinen, L., Virtanen, T., Klinteberg, B., & Magnusson, D. (2000). Child behavior and adult personality: Comparisons between criminality groups in Finland and Sweden. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 10,155-169.
287. Cohen, L. E., & Vila, B. J. (1996). Self-control and social control: An exposition of the Gottfredson-Hirschi/Sampson-Laub debate. Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention, 5, 125-150.
288. Farrington, D. P., & Loeber, R. (2000). Some benefits of dichotomization in psychiatric and criminological research. Criminal Behavior & Mental Health, 10, 100-122.
289. Tracy, P. E., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (1996). Continuity and discontinuity in criminal careers. New York: Plenum (pp. v-xiii).
290. Loeber, R., & Hay D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 371-410.
291. Olweus, D. (1979). Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in males: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 852-857.
292. Rowe, D. C., & Osgood, D. W. (1984). Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency: A reconsideration. American Sociological Review, 49, 526-540.
293. Osgood, D. W., & Rowe, D. C. (1994). Bridging criminal careers, theory, and policy through latent variable models of individual offending. Criminology, 32, 517-554.
294. Rowe, D. C., Osgood, D. W., & Nicewander, W. A. (1990). A latent trait approach to unifying criminal careers. Criminology, 28, 237-270.
295. Morizot, J., & Le Blanc, M. (2003). Continuity and change in personality traits from adolescence to midlife: A 25-year longitudinal study comparing representative and adjudicated men. Journal of Personality, 71, 705-756 (p. 750). 10.4135/9781452204383.n4
296. Gottfredson, S. D., & Gottfredson, D. M. (1986Accuracy of prediction models). A. Blumstein, J. Cohen, J. A. Roth, & C. A. Visher (Eds.). In, Criminal careers and "career criminals" (Vol. 2, pp. 212-290). Washington, DC: National Academy Press (p. 239).
297. Cohen, J. (1983Incapacitation as a strategy for crime control: Possibilities and pitfalls). M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.). In, Crime and justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 5, pp. 1-84). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
298. Visher, C. A. (1986The RAND inmate survey: A reanalysis). A. Blumstein, J. Cohen, J. A. Roth, & C. A. Visher (Eds.). In, Criminal careers and "career criminals" (Vol. 2, pp. 161-211). Washington, DC: National Academy Press
299. von Hirsch, A. (1985). Past or future crimes: Deservedness and dangerousness in the sentencing of criminals. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press
300. Greenwood, P. W., & Turner, S. (1987). Selective incapacitation revisited: Why the high-rate offenders are hard to predict. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
301. Auerhahn, K. (1999). Selective incapacitation and the problem of prediction. Criminology, 37, 703-734.
302. Decker, S., & Salert, B. (1986). Predicting the career criminal: An empirical test of the Greenwood scale. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 77, 215-236.
303. Miranne, A. C., & Geerken, M. R. (1991). The New Orleans inmate survey: A test of Greenwood’s predictive scale. Criminology, 29, 497-516.
304. Hayes, H. D., & Geerken, M. R. (1997). The idea of selective release. Justice Quarterly, 14, 353-370.
305. DeLisi, M. (2001). Scaling archetypal criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 77-92.
306. Moore, M. H. (1986Purblind justice: Normative issues in the use of prediction in the criminal justice system). A. Blumstein, J. Cohen, J. A. Roth, & C. A. Visher (Eds.). In, Criminal careers and "career criminals" (Vol. 2, pp. 314-355). Washington, DC: National Academy Press (p. 351).
307. Gottfredson, S. D., & Gottfredson, D. M. (1986Accuracy of prediction models). A. Blumstein, J. Cohen, J. A. Roth, & C. A. Visher (Eds.). In, Criminal careers and "career criminals" (Vol. 2, pp. 212-290). Washington, DC: National Academy Press
308. Mathiesen, T. (1998). Selective incapacitation revisited. Law and Human Behavior, 22, 455-469.
309. Monahan, J. (1996). Violence prediction: The past twenty and the next twenty years. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 107-120.
310. Moore, M. H., Estrich, S. R., McGillis, D., & Spelman, W. (1984). Dangerous offenders: The elusive target of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
311. Silver, E., & Miller, L. (2002). A cautionary note on the use of actuarial risk assessment tools for social control. Crime & Delinquency, 48,138-161
312. Webster, C. D., Hucker, S. J., & Bloom, H. (2002). Transcending the actuarial versus clinical polemic in assessing risk for violence. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 659-665.
313. Hoffman, P. B. (1994). Twenty years of operational use of a risk prediction instrument: The United States Parole Commission’s Salient Factor Score. Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, 477-494.
314. Hoffman, P. B., & Beck, J. L. (1985). Recidivism among released federal prisoners: Salient Factor Score and five-year follow-up. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 12, 501-507.
315. Janus, M. G. (1985). Selective incapacitation: Have we tried it? Does it work? Journal of Criminal Justice, 13, 117-130.
316. Brantley, A. C., & Ochberg, F. M. (2003). Lethal predators and future dangerousness. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 72, 16-22.
317. Monahan, J., et al. (2000). Developing a clinically useful actuarial tool for assessing violence risk. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 312-319.
318. Stevens, D. J. (2000). Identifying criminal predators, sentences, and criminal classifications. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 15, 50-71.
319. Batz, J. (2002). Fail safe. Retrieved October 9, 2002, from http://www.riverfronttimes.com/issues/2002-10-02/feature.html/print.html
320. Associated Press. (2002). Officials approve settlement to "Girl X" who was beaten, raped in public housing. Retrieved April 18, 2002, from http://www.courttv.com/news/2002/0417/rapesettlement_ap.html
321. Associated Press. (2002). Man charged in stabbing death of his aunt and two children. Retrieved January 2, 2001, from http://www.courttv.com/news/2000/1229/stabbing_ap.html
322. Johnson, A., Brunker, M., Lewis, G., The Associated Press, & Reuters. (2002). Teen girls rescued; kidnapper killed. Retrieved August 2, 2002, from http://www.msnbc.com/news/788577.asp
323. Fazlollah, M., Achrati, N., & Soteropoulos, J. (2002). Suspected kidnappers, family have web of ties. Retrieved July 25, 2002, from http://www.philly.com/mld/philly/news/local/3731617.htm
324. Associated Press. (2001). Two escape from Oklahoma prison. Retrieved January 16, 2001, from http://www.msnbc.com/news/516690.asp?0nm=-239
325. Puit, G. (2003). Jury sentences career criminal to death. Las Vegas Review-Journal, p. 1B. Retrieved October 2, 2003, from http://www/lexis-lexis.com/universe/document?_m=110dc2e4064430e32f77b975c0718df3
326. Gross, A. (2003). Man convicted in murder at car wash gets 46 years to life. Retrieved March 14, 2003, from http://www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/news/loca/states/ohio/counties/summit_county/5
327. Chancellor, C. (2003). Rapist gets life term. Retrieved January 14, 2003, from http://www.phillycom/mld/beaconjournal/4942006.htm?template=contentModules/printstory
328. The American Enterprise. (2002, April-May). 13 (3), 9. Retrieved March 13, 2003, from http://web5.infotrac-college.com/wadsworth/session/595/683/33158061/27!xrn_7_0_A845
329. Elkins, I. J., Iacono, W. G., Doyle, A. E., & McGue, M. (1997). Characteristics associated with the persistence of antisocial behavior: Results from recent longitudinal research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 2,101-124
330. Thornberry T. P., Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2001). The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 957-979.
331. Associated Press. (2002). "Mother of all pickpockets" sentenced. Retrieved June 3, 2002, from http://www.courttv.com/people/scm/scm_053002.html
332. Biskupic, J. (2001). Retarded killer’s appeal goes before high court. Retrieved March 26, 2001, from http://www.usatoday.com/news/court/2001-03-25-retardedkiller.htm
333. Associated Press. (2003). Mentally ill inmate facing death this week loses clemency bid. Retrieved March 26, 2003, from http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/03/25/texas.execution.ap/index.html
334. Associated Press. (2002). California executes former escaped convict for 1980 killing of 81-year-old woman. Retrieved January 29, 2002, from http://www.courttv.com/news/2002/0129/execution_ap.html
335. Walsh, F. (2003). Frank Lee Smith’s long hard life. Retrieved October 1, 2003, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/smith/etc/longhard.html;
336. Reuters. (2000). Panhandler convicted of brick assault. Retrieved November 30, 2000, from http://www.msnbc.com/news/496504.asp
337. Ripley, A. (2003, February 10). The struggle to stay outside the gates: A year has passed since TIME
338. Associated Press. (2002). Prison author Jack Henry Abbott commits suicide. Retrieved February 11, 2002, from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,45212,00.html.
339. Associated Press & Reuters. (2001). Texas jail-break leader on trial for murder. Retrieved August 14, 2001, from http://msnbc.com/news/613205.asp?0dm=L218N
340. Ryan, H. (2002). Newbury blames victim for "tragedy." Retrieved January 18, 2002, from http://www.courttv.com/trials/texas7/011702_ctv.html
341. Scott, A. R. (2003). A career criminal with over 100 charges still walking the streets. Retrieved March 24, 2003, from http://massjudgesaccountability.us/outrages/outrage5.html
342. Pfeife, S. (2003). Prosecutor’s mistake let murder suspect leave prison early. Retrieved March 13, 2003, from http://web5.infotrac-college.com/wadsworth/session/595/683/33158061/20!xrn
343. Associated Press. (2003). Illinois Gov. George Ryan pardons four death row inmates. Retrieved January 11, 2003, from http://www.courttv.com/news/death_penalty/011003_pardons_ap.html
344. Sun Media Corp. (2002, August 8). B. C. man charged in murders; drug link touted in 7 slayings in the mid-1990s. Edmonton Sun, p. 9
345. Lisle, L. (2003, February 15). A lock on trouble: Career criminal condo continues to manipulate from behind bars. The Ottawa Sun, p. 24
346. Falcon, M. (2002, November 15). Crown goes easy on career criminal. The Vancouver Province, p. A30
347. D’Angelo, A. (1998). Career criminal avoids jail: Judge says jail ineffective, tries probation. Retrieved March 24, 2003, from http://www.nsnews.com/issues98/w090798/09049805.html.
348. Associated Press. (2003). Defense attorney vows to appeal life sentence for spitter. Retrieved July 7, 2003, from http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_m=5b0e2edd1ef132bb
349. Associated Press. (2003). Strike 3! $11 theft gets career criminal 25 years to life in California prison. Retrieved March 24, 2003, from http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/WeirdNews/2002/11/15/4555-ap.html
350. Holland, G. (2002). Justices to debate 3-strikes law. Retrieved November 5, 2002, from http://wire.ap.org/Apnews/center_package.html
351. Manson, P. (2003, September 5). 3 drug convictions portend life sentence, judge says. Chicago Daily Law Bulletin, p. 1
352. Riccardi, N. (2003, May 27). Prosecutors seek fewer 3rd strikes. Los Angeles Times, p. B2
353. Hebert, A. (2003). Woman says inmate set up to fail. Retrieved September 24, 2003, from http://www.dailycamera.com/bdc/county_news/article/0,1713, BDC_2423_2265897,00.html.
354. Hirschi, T., & Hindelang, M. J. (1977). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist review. American Sociological Review, 42, 571-587 (p. 571).
355. Lipset, S. M., & Ladd, E. C. (1972). The politics of American sociologists. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 67-104.
356. Lipset, S. M. (1982). The academic mind at the top: The political behavior and values of faculty elites. Public Opinion Quarterly, 46, 143-168
357. Sowell, T. (1992). Inside American education: The decline, the deception, the dogmas. New York: Simon & Schuster
358. Walsh, A., & Ellis, L. (1999). Political ideology and American criminologists’ explanations for criminal behavior. The Criminologist, 24, 13-27.
359. Wilson, J. Q. (1983). Thinking about crime (Rev. ed.). New York: Vintage.
360. Cullen, F. T., & Gilbert, K. E. (1982). Reaffirming rehabilitation. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company.
361. Garland, D. (2000). The culture of high crime societies: Some preconditions of recent "law and order" policies. British Journal of Criminology, 40, 347-375 (pp. 356-357).
362. Sowell, T. (1999). The quest for cosmic justice. New York: The Free Press (pp. 149-150).
363. Tannenbaum, F. (1938). Crime and the community. New York: Ginn.
364. Sutherland, E. (1950a). The diffusion of sexual psychopath laws. American Journal of Sociology, 56, 142-148
365. Sutherland, E. (1950b). The sexual psychopath laws. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 40, 534-554.
366. Feeley M. M., & Kamin, S. (1996The effect of "three strikes and you’re out" the future). D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.). In, Three strikes and you’re out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 135-154). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
367. Kramer, R. C. (1982). From "habitual offenders" to "career criminals": The historical construction and development of criminal categories. Law & Human Behavior, 6, 273-293.
368. Surette, R. (1996). News from nowhere, policy to follow: Media and the social construction of "three strikes and you’re out." In D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you’re out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 177-202). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Surette’s article is noteworthy because it presents empirical data to support its argument.
369. Bennett, W. J., DiIulio, J. J., Jr., & Walters, J. P. [1996]. Body count: Moral poverty… and how to win America’s war against crime and drugs. New York: Simon & Schuster
370. Benekos, P. J., & Merlo, A. V. (1995). Three strikes and you’re out! The political sentencing game. Federal Probation, 59, 3-9.
371. Welch, M., Fenwick, M., & Roberts, M. (1997). Primary definitions of crime and moral panic: A content analysis of experts’ quotes in feature newspaper articles on crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 474-494.
372. Welch, M., & Roberts, M. (1998). State managers, intellectuals, and the media: A content analysis of ideology in experts’ quotes in feature newspaper articles on crime. Justice Quarterly, 15, 219-242.
373. Simon, J. (1996Criminology and the recidivist). D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.). In, Three strikes and you’re out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 24-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
374. Pratt, J., & Dickson, M. (1997). Dangerous, inadequate, invisible, out: Episodes in the criminological career of habitual criminals. Theoretical Criminology, 1, 363-384.
375. Currie, E. (2004Crime, justice, and the social environment). B. W. Hancock & P. M. Sharp (Eds.). In, Public policy, crime, and criminal justice (3rd ed., pp. 52-69). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
376. Merlo, A. V., & Benekos, P. J. (2004Dynamics of criminal justice). B. W. Hancock & P. M. Sharp (Eds.). In, Public policy, crime, and criminal justice (3rd ed., pp. 153-175). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
377. Miller, S. J., Dinitz, S., & Conrad, J. P. (1982). Careers of the violent: The dangerous offender and criminal justice. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books (p. 87)
378. Blumstein, A., & Moitra, S. (1980). The identification of career criminals from chronic offenders in a cohort. Law and Policy Quarterly, 2, 321-334 (p. 329).
379. Sutherland, E. (1950a, p. 143); see note 18.
380. DeLisi, M. (2001). Extreme career criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 25, 239-252.
381. Rossi, P. H., Waite, E., Bose, C. E., & Berk, R. E. (1974). The seriousness of crimes: Normative structure and individual differences. American Sociological Review, 39, 224-237.
382. Wilson, J. Q. (1997). The moral sense. New York: The Free Press.
383. Allen, H. E. (1995). The American dream and crime in the 21st century: Presidential address to the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Justice Quarterly, 12, 427-446 (p. 437)
384. Chilton, R. (2001). Viable policy: The impact of federal funding and the need for independent research agendas-The American Society of Criminology 2000 Presidential Address. Criminology, 39, 1-8.
385. Christie, N. (1993). Crime control as industry: Toward gulags western style. New York: Routledge
386. Cullen, F. T., & Wozniak, J. (1982). Fighting the appeal of repression. Crime and Social Justice, 18, 23-33.
387. Feeley M. M., & Simon, J. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology, 30, 449-474.
388. Glaser, D. (1978). The counterproductivity of conservative thinking about crime. Criminology, 16, 209-225.
389. Miller, J. G. (1996). Search and destroy: African-American males in the criminal justice system. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
390. Schwartz, M. D. (2001). One critical criminologist’s view of the future and value of ASC. The Criminologist, 26, 1-5.
391. Skolnick, J. H. (1995). What not to do about crime: The American Society of Criminology 1994 Presidential Address. Criminology, 33, 1-15.
392. Tonry, M. (1995). Malign neglect: Race, crime, and punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press
393. Wellford, C. F. (1997). 1996 Presidential Address: Controlling crime and achieving justice. Criminology, 35,1-12.
394. Greenberg, D. F (1991). Modeling criminal careers. Criminology, 29, 17-46 (pp. 39-40). 10.4135/9781452204383.n5
395. Cronin, R. C., Bourque, B. B., Gragg, F. E., Mell, J. M., & McGrady A. A. (1988). Evaluation of the habitual serious and violent juvenile offender program: Final report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
396. Krisberg, B., & Howell, J. C. (1998). The impact of the juvenile justice system and prospects for graduated sanctions in a comprehensive strategy. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious & violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 346-366). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
397. Schumacher, M., & Kurz, G. A. (1999). The 8% solution: Preventing serious, repeat juvenile crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
398. Martin, S. E. (1986). Policing career criminals: An examination of an innovative crime control program. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 77, 1159-1182.
399. Martin, S. E., & Sherman, L. W. (1986). Selective apprehension: A police strategy for repeat offenders. Criminology, 24, 155-174.
400. Martin, S. E., & Sherman, L. W. (1986). Catching career criminals: Proactive policing and selective apprehension. Justice Quarterly, 3,171-192.
401. Abrahamse, A. F., Ebener, P. A., Greenwood, P. W., Fitzgerald, N., & Kosin, T. E. (1991). An experimental evaluation of the Phoenix repeat offender program. Justice Quarterly, 8,141-168.
402. Fagan, J., & Zimring, F. E. (Eds.). (2000). The changing borders of juvenile justice: Transfer of adolescents to the criminal court. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
403. Winner, L., Lanza-Kaduce, L., Bishop, D. M., & Frazier, C. E. (1997). The transfer of juveniles to criminal court: Reexamining recidivism over the long term. Crime & Delinquency, 43, 548-563.
404. Thomas, C. W., & Bishop, D. M. (1984). The effect of formal and informal sanctions on delinquency: A longitudinal comparison of labeling and deterrence theories. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 75,1222-1245.
405. Fagan, J. A. (1990). Treatment and reintegration of violent juvenile offenders: Experimental results. Justice Quarterly, 7, 233-264.
406. Zeigler, F. A., & del Carmen, R. V. (1996). Constitutional issues arising from "three strikes and you’re out" legislation. In D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you’re out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 3-24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
407. Mears, B. (2003). Supreme Court upholds long sentences under 3-strikes-you’re-out law. Retrieved October 22, 2003, from http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/03/05/scouts.three.strikes/
408. Greenwood, P. W., & Abrahamse, A. (1982). Selective incapacitation. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
409. Cohen, J. (1983Incapacitation as a strategy for crime control: Possibilities and pitfalls). M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.). In, Crime and justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 5, pp. 1-84). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
410. Visher, C. A. (1986The RAND inmate survey: A reanalysis). A. Blumstein et al. (Eds.). In, Criminal careers and "career criminals" (pp. 161-211). Washington, DC: National Academy Press
411. von Hirsch, A. (1985). Past or future crimes: Deservedness and dangerousness in the sentencing of criminals. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
412. DeLisi, M. (2001). Scaling archetypal criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 77-92.
413. von Hirsch, A. (1984). The ethics of selective incapacitation: Observations on the contemporary debate. Crime & Delinquency, 30, 175-194 (p. 191).
414. Feld, B. C. (1983). Delinquent careers and criminal policy: Just deserts and the waiver policy. Criminology, 21, 195-212.
415. Mathiesen, T. (1998). Selective incapacitation revisited. Law & Human Behavior, 22, 455-469.
416. Polk, K., & Gibbons, D. C. (1988). The uses of criminology, the rehabilitative ideal, and justice. Crime & Delinquency, 34, 263-276.
417. Zimring, F. E., & Hawkins, G. (1986). Dangerousness and criminal justice. Michigan Law Review, 85, 481-509.
418. Zimring, F. E., & Hawkins, G. (1995). Incapacitation: Penal confinement and the restraint of crime. New York: Oxford University Press.
419. Chaiken, M. R., & Chaiken, J. M. (2004Priority prosecution of high-rate dangerous offenders). B. W. Hancock & P. M. Sharp (Eds.). In, Public policy, crime, and criminal justice (3rd ed., pp. 231-243). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
420. Brantley, A. C., & Ochberg, F. M. (2003). Lethal predators and future dangerousness. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 72, 16-22.
421. Becker, J. V., Stinson, J., Tromp, S., & Messer, G. (2003). Characteristics of individuals petitioned for civil commitment. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 47, 185-195.
422. Erickson, P. E. (2002). The legal standard of volitional impairment: An analysis of substantive due process and the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Kansas v. Hendricks. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30,1-10
423. Janus, E. S. (2000). Sexual predator commitment laws: Lessons for law and the behavioral sciences. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 5-21.
424. Simon, J. (1998). Managing the monstrous: Sex offenders and the new penology. Psychology, Public Policy & Law, 4, 452-467.
425. Petersilia, J., Greenwood, P. W., & Lavin, M. (1978). Criminal careers of habitual felons. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
426. DeLisi, M. (2001). Extreme career criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 25, 239-252.
427. Greenwood, P. W. (1990The violent offender in the criminal justice system). N. A. Weiner, M. A. Zahn, & R. J. Sagi (Eds.). In, Violence: Patterns, causes, public policy (pp. 339-350). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers
428. Petersilia, J. (1992). California’s prison policy: Causes, costs, and consequences. The Prison Journal, 72, 8-36.
429. Durose, M. R., & Langan, P. A. (2003, June). Felony sentences in state courts, 2000. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics
430. Greenfeld, L. A. (1995, April). Prison sentences and time served for violence. Selected findings. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics
431. Langan, P. A., & Levin, D. J. (2002, June). Recidivism of prisoners released in 1994. Special report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
432. Block, M. K. (1996). Supply side imprisonment policy. Two views on imprisonment policies. Research report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
433. Bernard, T. J., & Ritti, R. R. (1991). The Philadelphia birth cohort and selective incapacitation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 28, 33-54.
434. Barnett, A., & Lofaso, A. J. (1985). Selective incapacitation and the Philadelphia cohort data. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 1, 3-36.
435. Gottfredson, S. D., & Gottfredson, D. M. (1994). Behavioral prediction and the problem of incapacitation. Criminology, 32, 441-474.
436. Greenberg, D. F (1975). The incapacitative effect of imprisonment: Some estimates. Law & Society Review, 9, 541-580
437. Van Dine, S., Conrad, J. P., & Dinitz, S. (1979). Restraining the wicked: The incapacitation of the dangerous criminal. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
438. Zimring, F. E., & Hawkins, G. (1988). The new mathematics of imprisonment. Crime & Delinquency, 34, 425-436.
439. Auerhahn, K. (2002). Selective incapacitation, three strikes, and the problem of aging prison populations: Using simulation modeling to see the future. Criminology & Public Policy, 3, 353-388.
440. Moody, C. E. (2002). Simulation modeling and policy analysis. Criminology & Public Policy, 3, 393-398.
441. Kovandzic, T. V., Sloan, J. J. III, & Vieraitis, L. M. (2002). Unintended political consequences of politically popular sentencing policy: The homicide promoting effects of "three strikes" in U.S. cities (1980-1999). Criminology & Public Policy, 3, 399-424.
442. Marvell, T. B., & Moody, C. E. (2001). The lethal effects of three-strikes laws. Journal of Legal Studies, 30, 89-106.
443. DeFina, R. H., & Arvanites, T. M. (2002). The weak effect of imprisonment on crime, 1971-1998. Social Science Quarterly, 83, 635-653.
444. Shepherd, J. M. (2002). Fear of the first strike: The full deterrent effect of California’s two-and three-strikes legislation. Journal of Legal Studies, 31, 159-201.
445. Shepherd, J. M. (2002). Police, prosecutors, criminals, and determinate sentencing: The truth about truth-in-sentencing laws. Journal of Law and Economics, 45, 509-534.
446. Kovandzic, T. V. (2001). The impact of Florida’s habitual offender law on crime. Criminology, 39,179-204.
447. Austin, J., Clark, J., Hardyman, P., & Henry, D. A. (1999). The impact of "three strikes and you’re out." Punishment and Society, 1,131-162 (pp. 138-142, 131).
448. Clark, J., Austin, J., & Henry, D. A. (1997, September). "Three strikes and you’re out": A review of state legislation. Research in brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice
449. Kunselman, J. C., & Vito, G. F. (2002). Questioning mandatory sentencing efficiency: A case study of persistent felony offender rapists in Kentucky. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 53-68.
450. Meehan, K. E. (2000). California’s three-strikes law: The first six years. Corrections Management Quarterly, 4, 22-33.
451. Vitiello, M. (1997). Three strikes: Can we return to rationality? Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87, 395-481
452. Zimring, F. E., Hawkins, G., & Kamin, S. (2001). Punishment and democracy: Three strikes and you’re out in California. New York: Oxford University Press.
453. DiIulio, J. J., & Piehl, A. M. (1991, Fall). Does prison pay? The stormy national debate over the cost-effectiveness of imprisonment. Brookings Review, 28-35
454. La Course, D. (1994). Three strikes is working in Washington. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 421-424.
455. Levitt, S. D. (1996). The effect of prison population size on crime rates: Evidence from prison overcrowding litigation. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111, 319-351.
456. Piehl, A. M., & DiIulio, J. J. (1995, Winter). Does prison pay? Revisited: Returning to the crime scene. Brookings Review, 20-25.
457. Hochstetler, A. (2001). Opportunities and decisions: Interactional dynamics in robbery and burglary groups. Criminology, 39, 737-764.
458. Marvell, T. B., & Moody, C. E. (1997). The impact of prison growth on homicide. Homicide Studies, 1, 205-233 (p. 221).
459. Conklin, J. E. (2003). Why crime rates fell. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. This work masterfully reviews the literature on the prison-crime relationship and many of the issues relating to the control of career criminals. It also presents a sobering look at the role that political ideology has in influencing the research of criminologists.
460. DeLisi, M. (2003). Criminal careers behind bars. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 653-669.
461. Allender, D. M., & Marcell, F. (2003). Career criminals, security threat groups, and prison gangs: An interrelated threat. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 72, 8-12.
462. Benda, B. B., Corwyn, R. F., & Toombs, N. J. (2001). Recidivism among adolescent serious offenders: Prediction of entry into the correctional system for adults. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 28, 588-613.
463. Cottle, C. C., Lee, R. J., & Heilbrun, K. (2001). The prediction of criminal recidivism in juveniles: A metaanalysis. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 28, 367-394.
464. Kroner, D. G., & Mills, J. F (2001). The accuracy of five risk appraisal instruments in predicting institutional misconduct and new convictions. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 28, 471-489
465. Loza, W. (2003). Predicting violent and nonviolent recidivism of incarcerated male offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8,175-203
466. Walters, G. D. (2003). Predicting institutional adjustment and recidivism with the psychopathy checklist factor scores: A meta-analysis. Law & Human Behavior, 27, 541-558.
467. Sabol, W. J., & McGready J. (1999, June). Time served in prison by federal offenders, 1986-1997. Special report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
468. Lane, J. (1993). Is there life without parole? A capital defendant’s right to a meaningful alternative sentence. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 26, 327-356.
469. Cheatwood, D. (1988). The life-without-parole sanction: Its current status and a research agenda. Crime & Delinquency, 34, 43-59.
470. McGarrell, E., & Sandys, M. (1996). The misperception of public opinion toward capital punishment: Examining the spuriousness explanation of death penalty support. American Behavioral Scientist, 39, 500-513.
471. Pogarsky G. (2002). Identifying "deterrable" offenders: Implications for research on deterrence. Justice Quarterly, 19, 431-452.
472. Piquero, A. R., & Pogarsky, G. (2002). Beyond Stafford and Warr’s reconceptualization of deterrence: Personal and vicarious experiences, impulsivity and offending behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39, 153-186.
473. Crouch, B. M. (1993). Is incarceration really worse? Analysis of offenders’ preferences for prison over probation. Justice Quarterly, 10, 67-88 (p. 84)
474. Petersilia, J., & Deschenes, E. P. (1994a). Perceptions of punishment: Inmates and staff rank the severity of prison versus intermediate sanctions. The Prison Journal, 74, 306-328
475. Petersilia, J., & Deschenes, E. P. (1994b). What punishes? Inmates rank the severity of prison vs. intermediate sanctions. Federal Probation, 58, 3-8
476. Wood, P. B., & May D. C. (2003). Racial differences in perceptions of the severity of sanctions: A comparison of prison with alternatives. Justice Quarterly, 20, 605-632.
477. Herrnstein, R. J. (1995). Criminogenic traits. In J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime (pp. 39-64). San Francisco: ICS Press (pp. 39-40).
478. Dezhbakhsh, H., Rubin, P. H., & Shepherd, J. M. (2003). Does capital punishment have a deterrent effect? New evidence from postmoratorium panel data. American Law and Economics Review, 5, 344-376.
479. Bedau, H. A. (Ed.). (1997). The death penalty in America: Current controversies. New York: Oxford University Press.
480. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2001). Actual innocence: When justice goes wrong and how to make it right. New York: Signet. 10.4135/9781452204383.n6
481. Donker, A. G., Smeenk, W. H., van der Laan, P. H., & Verhulst, F. C. (2003). Individual stability of antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: Testing the stability postulate of Moffitt’s developmental theory. Criminology, 41, 593-610.
482. Piquero, A. R., & White, N. A. (2003). On the relationship between cognitive abilities and life-course persistent offending among a sample of African Americans: A longitudinal test of Moffitt’s hypothesis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 399-409.
483. Mazerolle, P., & Maahs, J. (2002). Developmental theory and battering incidents: Examining the relationship between discrete offender groups and intimate partner violence. Final report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice
484. DeLisi, M. (2001). Scaling archetypal criminals. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 26, 77-92.
485. Kratzer, L., & Hodgins, S. (1999). A typology of offenders: A test of Moffitt’s theory among males and females from childhood to age 30. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 9, 57-73.
486. Bartusch, D. J., Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Is age important? Testing a general versus a developmental theory of antisocial behavior. Criminology, 35,13-48
487. Klevens, J., Restrepo, O., Roca, J., & Martinez, A. (2000). Comparison of offenders with early-and late-starting antisocial behavior in Colombia. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44,194-203.
488. Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use and mental health problems. New York: Springer-Verlag
489. Huizinga, D., Loeber, R., Thornberry, T. P., & Cothern, L. (2000, November). Co-occurrence of delinquency and other problem behaviors. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
490. McCord, J. (2001Psychosocial contributions to psychopathy and violence). A. Raine & J. Sanmartin (Eds.). In, Violence and psychopathy (pp. 141-169). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers
491. Najaka, S. S., Gottfredson, D. C., & Wilson, D. B. (2002). A meta-analytic inquiry into the relationship between selected risk factors and problem behavior. Prevention Science, 2, 257-271.
492. Woodward, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2002). Romantic relationships of young people with childhood and adolescent onset antisocial behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 231-243.
493. Cohen, M. A. (1998). The monetary value of saving a high-risk youth. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14, 5-33.
494. Cohen, M. A., Rust, R. T., Steen, S., & Tidd, S. T. (2004). Willingness-to-pay for crime control programs. Criminology, 42, 89-110.
495. DeLisi, M., & Gatling, J. M. (2003). Who pays for a life of crime? An empirical assessment of the assorted victimization costs posed by career criminals. Criminal Justice Studies: A Critical Journal of Crime, Law & Society, 16, 283-293.
496. Jones, D., Dodge, K. A., Foster, E. M., Nix, R., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). Early identification of children at risk for costly mental health service use. Prevention Science, 3, 247-256.
497. Olds, D. L. (2002). Prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses: From randomized trials to community replication. Prevention Science, 3, 153-172.
498. Patterson, G. R., Dishion, T. J., & Yoerger, K. (2000). Adolescent growth in new forms of problem behavior: Macro-and micro-peer dynamics. Prevention Science, 1, 3-13.
499. DeLisi, M. (2003). Self-control pathology: The elephant in the living room. Advances in Criminological Theory, 12, 21-38.
500. Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L., & Unnever, J. D. (2002). The relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to crime and delinquency: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 4, 344-360.
501. Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Pratt, T. C. (2003). Parental management, ADHD, and delinquent involvement: Reassessing Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory. Justice Quarterly, 20, 471-500.
502. Wiebe, R. P. (2003). Reconciling psychopathy and low self-control. Justice Quarterly, 20, 297-336.
503. Martinson, R. (1974). What works? Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest, 35, 22-54.
504. Lipton, D., Martinson, R., & Wilks, J. (1975). The effectiveness of correctional treatment: A survey of treatment evaluation studies. New York: Praeger
505. Gottfredson, M. R. (1979). Treatment destruction techniques. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16, 39-54.
506. Cullen, F. T. (2002). Rehabilitation and treatment programs. In J. Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime: Public policies for crime control (pp. 253-290). Oakland, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies Press.
507. Fishbein, D. (2000). The importance of neurobiological research to the prevention of psychopathology. Prevention Science, 1, 89-106 (p. 102).
508. Webster-Stratton, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Nipping early risk factors in the bud: Preventing substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children (0-8 years). Prevention Science, 2,165-192.
509. Olds, D. L. (2002). Prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses: From randomized trials to community replication. Prevention Science, 3,153-172.
510. Howell, J. C. (2003). Diffusing research into practice using the comprehensive strategy for serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 1, 219-245.
511. Gelernter, D. (2001). What do murderers deserve? In H. Tischler (Ed.), Debating points: Crime and corrections (pp. 13-20). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
512. Sutherland, E. (1925). Murder and the death penalty. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 15, 522-529.
513. Nietzsche, F (1966). Beyond good and evil. New York: Vintage Books.
514. Associated Press. (2003). Stand-alone Amber Alert bill fails in House. Retrieved March 27, 2003, from http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/03/26/amber.alert.ap/index/html.
515. Associated Press. (2003). Survey: States losing sex offenders. Retrieved February 6, 2003, from http://www.msnbc.com/news/869586.asp?0dm=C216N
516. Stevens, D. J. (1992). Research note: The death sentence and inmate attitudes. Crime & Delinquency, 38, 272-279.