Psychosocial adversity and child psychopathology

British Journal of Psychiatry

Volumn 174, Issue JUN., 1999, Pages 480-493

  Rutter, Michael L ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR; CHILD PSYCHIATRY; CHILD REARING; GENETIC ANALYSIS; GROUP PSYCHOLOGY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; LIFE EVENT; MATERNAL DEPRIVATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; REVIEW; SOCIAL ASPECT;

EID: 0033047097     PISSN: 00071250     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1192/bjp.174.6.480     Document Type: Review

References (205)

1. Ainsworth, M. D. (1962) The effects of maternal deprivation: a review of findings and controversy in the context of research strategy. In Deprivation of Maternal Care: a Reassessment of its Effects. Geneva: World Health Organization.
2. & Bowlby, J. (1954) Research strategy in the study of mother-child separation. Courier, 4, 105-131.
3. Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., et al (1978) Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. Anderson, J. E. (1946) Methods of child psychology. In Manual of Child Psychology (ed. L. Carmichael), pp. 1-42, New York: Wiley.
5. Anderson, K. E., Lytton, H. & Romney, D. M. (1986) Mother's interactions with normal and conduct-disordered boys: Who affects whom? Developmental Psychology, 22, 604-609.
6. Asher, S. R. & Gottman, J. M. (eds) (1981) The Development of Children's Friendships. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7. Baldwin, A. L. (1968) Theories of Child Development. New York: Wiley.
8. Kalhorn, J. & Breese, F. H. (1945) Patterns of parent behavior. Psychological Monographs, 58, 1-75.
9. Bandura, A. & Walters, R. H. (1963) Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
10. Barker, R. G. & Wright, H. F. (1955) Midwest and its Children. New York: Harper & Row.
11. Barkley, R. A. & Cunningham, C. E. (1979) The effects of methylphenidate on the mother-child interactions of hyperactive children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 201-208.
12. Becker, W. C. (1960) The relationship of factors in parental ratings of self and each other to the behaviour of kindergarten children as rated by mothers, fathers, and teachers. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 6, 507-527.
13. Peterson, D. B., Luria, Z., et al (1962) Relations of factors derived from parent interview ratings to behaviour problems of five-year-olds. Child Development, 33, 509-536.
14. Bell, R. Q. (1968) A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in studies of socialization. Psychological Review, 75, 81-95.
15. & Chapman, M. (1986) Child effects in studies using experimental or brief longitudinal approaches to socialization. Developmental Psychology, 22, 595-603.
16. Berk, R. A. (1983) An introduction to sample selection bias in sociological data. American Sociological Review, 48, 386-398.
17. Block, J. H., Block, J. & Gjerde, P. F. (1986) The personality of children prior to divorce: a prospective study. Child Development, 57, 827-840.
18. Bouchard, T. J. (1997) IQ similarity in twins reared apart: findings and responses to critics. In Intelligence, Heredity and Environment (eds R. J. Sternberg & E. Grigorenko), pp. 126-160. New York: Cambridge University Press.
19. Bowlby, J. (1951) Maternal Care and Mental Health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
20. Ainsworth, M. D., Boston, M., et al (1956) The effects of mother-child separation: a follow-up study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 29, 211-247.
21. Bretherton, I. (1987) New perspectives on attachment relations: security, communication, and internal working models. In Handbook of Infant Development (3rd edn) (ed. J. Osofsky), pp. 1061-1100. New York: Wiley.
22. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1961) Towards a theoretical model for the analysis of parent-child relationships in a social context. In Parental Attitudes and Child Behaviour (ed. J. Glidewell). Springfield, IL; Charles C. Thomas.
23. & Crouter, A. C. (1983) The evolution of environmental models in developmental research. In Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. I. History, Theory, and Methods (4th edn) (ed. P. H. Mussen & vol. ed. W. Kessen), pp. 357-414. New York: Wiley.
24. Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J. & Aber, J. L. (1997) Neighborhood Poverty, Vol. I: Context and Consequences for Children. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
25. Brown, G. W. & Rutter, M. (1966) The measurement of family activities and relationships: a methodological study. Human Relations, 19, 241-263.
26. Harris, T. O. & Peto, J. (1973) Life events and psychiatric disorders: part 2, the nature of the causal link. Psychological Medicine, 3, 159-179.
27. (1978) Social Origins of Depression: a Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. London: Tavistock.
28. (1990) Life Events and Illness, New York: Guilford.
29. & Hepworth, C. (1994) Life events and endogenous depression: a puzzle reexamined. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 525-534.
30. Brunk, M. A. & Henggeler, S. W. (1984) Child influences on adult controls: an experimental investigation. Developmental Psychology, 20, 1074-1081.
31. Burks, B. S. (1928) The relative influence of nature and nurture upon mental development: a comparative study of foster parent-foster child resemblance and true parent-true child resemblance. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 27, 219-316.
32. Cairns, R. B. (1983) The emergence of developmental psychology. In Handbook of Child Psychology. Vol. I. History, Theory, and Methods (4th edn) (ed. P. H. Mussen & vol. ed. W. Kessen), pp. 41-102. New York: Wiley.
33. Casler, L. (1961) Maternal deprivation: a critical review of literature. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 26(2), serial no. 80.
34. Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. W. (1993) When do individual differences matter? A paradoxical theory of personality coherence. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 247-271.
35. Champion, L. A., Goodall, G. M. & Rutter, M. (1995) Behavioural problems in childhood and stressors in early adult life: a 20-year follow-up of London school children. Psychological Medicine, 25, 231-246.
36. Cherlin, A. J., Furstenberg, F. F., Jr., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., et al (1991) Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on children in Great Britain and the United States. Science, 252, 1386-1389.
37. Clarke, A. M. & Clarke, A. D. B. (eds) (1976) Early Experience: Myth and Evidence. London: Open Books.
38. Clausen J. (1990) Adolescent competence and the shaping of the life course. American Journal of Sociology, 96, 805-842.
39. Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., et al (1966) Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
40. Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., Jr., et al (1992) A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63, 526-541.
41. Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Jr., et al (1994) Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541-561.
42. Cox, A., Rutter, M.,Yule, B., et al (1977) Bias resulting from missing information: some epidemiological findings. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 31, 131-136.
43. Dare, C. (1976) Psychoanalytic theories. In Child Psychiatry: Modern Approaches (eds M. Rutter & L. Hersov), pp. 255-268. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
44. Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R. & Kavanagh, K. A. (1992) An experimental test of the coercion model: linking theory, measurement and intervention. In Preventing Antisocial Behaviour: Intervention from Birth Through Adolescence (eds J. McCord & R. W. Tremblay), pp. 253-282. New York: Guilford.
45. Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. & Pettit, G. S. (1990) Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678-1683.
46. Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., et al (1995) Social information-processing patterns partially mediate the effect of early physical abuse on later conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 104, 632-643.
47. Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., et al (1939) Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
48. Douglas, J. W. B. (1964) The Home and the School. London: MacGibbon & Kee.
49. Dunn, J. & Kendrick, C. (1982) Siblings: Love, Envy and Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
50. & Plomin, R. (1990) Separate Lives: Why Siblings Are So Different. New York: Basic Books.
51. Elder, G. H. Jr. (1986) Military times and turning points in men's lives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 233-245.
52. Farrington, D. P. (1988) Studying changes within individuals: the causes of offending. In Studies of Psychosocial Risk: The Power of Longitudinal Data (ed M. Rutter), pp. 158-183. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
53. Barnes, G. C. & Lambert, S. (1996) The concentration of offending in families. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 1, 47-63.
54. Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J. & Lynskey, M. T. (1992) Family change, parental discord and early offending. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1059-1075.
55. & Lynskey, M. T. (1996) Adolescent resiliency to family adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 281-292.
56. Freeman, H. L. (1985) Mental Health and the Environment. London: Churchill Livingstone.
57. Freud, A. & Dann, S. (1951) An experiment in group upbringing. Psychoanalytical Study of the Child, 6, 127-168.
58. Ge, X., Conger, R. D., Cadoret, R. J., et al (1996) The development interface between nature and nurture: a mutual influence model of child antisocial behavior and parenting. Developmental Psychology, 32, 574-589.
59. Goodyer, I. M. (1990) Life Experiences, Development and Child Psychopathology, Chichester: Wiley.
60. (1995) Life events and difficulties: their nature and effects. In The Depressed Child and Adolescent: Developmental and Clinical Perspectives (ed. I. M. Goodyer), pp. 171-193. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
61. Kolvin, I. & Gatzanis, S. (1985) Recent undesirable life events and psychiatric disorder in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 517-523.
62. Harlow, H. F. (1958) The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673-685.
63. (1963) The maternal affectional system. In Determinants of Infant Behaviour, Vol. 2 (ed. B. M. Foss), pp. 3-33. London: Methuen.
64. Harrington, R. (1994) Depressive Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence. Chichester: Wiley.
65. Rutter, M. & Fombonne, E. (1996) Developmental pathways in depression: multiple meanings, antecedents, and endpoints. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 601-616.
66. Hartup, W. W. (1983) Peer relations. Handbook of Child Psychology: IV Socialization, Personality, and Social Development (ed. P. H. Mussen & vol. ed. M. Hetherington), pp. 103-196. New York: Wiley.
67. Hebb, D. O. (1949) The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley.
68. Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M. & Cox, R. (1982) Effects of divorce on parents and children. In Nontraditional Families (ed. M. Lamb), pp. 233-288. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
69. Hewitt, L. E. & Jenkins, R. L. (1946) Fundamental Patterns of Maladjustment. Illinois: Michigan Child Guidance Institute.
70. Hinde, R. A. (1979) Towards Understanding Relationships. London: Academic Press.
71. & Herrmann, J. (1977) Frequencies, durations, derived measures and their correlations in studying dyadic and triadic relationships. In Studies in Mother-Infant Interaction (ed. H. R. Schaffer). London; Academic Press.
72. & McGinnis, L. (1977) Some factors influencing the effect of temporary mother-infant separation: some experiments with rhesus monkeys. Psychological Medicine, 7, 197-212.
73. Hoffman, M. L. (1957) An interview method for obtaining descriptions of parent child interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 3, 76-83.
74. (1960) Power assertion by the parent and its impact on the child. Child Development, 31, 129-143.
75. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1965) Binocular interaction in striate cortex of kittens reared with artificial squint. Journal of Neurophysiology, 28, 1041-1049.
76. Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton Century-Crofts.
77. Hunt, J. McV. (1979) Psychological development: early experience. Annual Review of Psychology, 30, 103-143.
78. Jencks, C., Smith, M., Acland, H., et al (1972) Inequality: a Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.
79. Jensen, A. R. (1969) How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard Educational Review, 39, 1-123.
80. Jones, H. E. (1946) Environmental influences on mental development. In Manual of Child Psychology (ed. L. Carmichael), pp. 582-632. New York: Wiley.
81. Kagan, J. (1984) The Nature of the Child, New York: Basic.
82. Kandel, D. (1978a) Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 427-436.
83. (1978b) Similarity in real-life adolescent friendship pairs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 306-312.
84. Kanner, L. (1949) Problems of nosology and psychodynamics in early infantile autism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 19, 416-426.
85. (1959) The Thirty-Third Maudsley Lecture: trends in child psychiatry. Journal of Mental Science, 105, 581-593.
86. Kendler, K. S., Neale, M., Kessler, R., et al (1993) A longitudinal twin study of personality and major depression in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 853-862.
87. Prescott, C. A., et al (1996) Childhood parental loss and alcoholism in women: a causal analysis using a twin-family design. Psychological Medicine, 26, 79-95.
88. & Karkowski-Shuman, L. (1997) Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: genetic control of exposure to the environment? Psychological Medicine, 27, 549-564.
89. Kolvin, I, Miller, F. J. W., Fleeting, M., et al (1988) Social and parenting factors affecting criminal-offence rates: findings from the Newcastle Thousand-Family Study (1947-1980). British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 80-90.
90. Scott, D. M., et al (1990) Continuities of Deprivation? The Newcastle Thousand-Family Survey Aldershot: Avebury.
91. Laub, J. H., Nagin, D. S. & Sampson, R. J. (1998) Trajectories of change in criminal offending: good marriages and the desistance process. American Sociological Review, 63, 225-238.
92. Leahy, A. M. (1935) Nature nurture and intelligence. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 17, 236-308.
93. Lee, C. L. & Bates, J. E. (1985) Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament. Child Development, 56, 1314-1325.
94. Leff, J. & Vaughn, C. (1985) Expressed Emotion in families: its Significance for Mental Illness. New York: Guillord Press.
95. Levine, S. (1962) The effects of infantile experience on adult behavior. In Experimental Foundations of Clinical Psychology (ed. A. J. Bachrach), pp. 139-169. New York: Basic Books.
96. Levy, D. M. (1943) Maternal Overprotection, Columbia: Columbia University Press.
97. Lewin, K., Lippitt, R. & White, R. K. (1939) Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created 'social climates'. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-299.
98. Lippitt, R. & White, R. K. (1943) The 'social climate' of children's groups. In Child Behavior and Development (eds R. G. Barker, J. S. Kouin & H. F. Wright), pp. 485-508. New York: McGraw-Hill.
99. Maccoby, E. E. & Jacklin, C. N. (1983) The 'person' characteristics of children and the family as environment. In Human Development: an International Perspective (eds D. Magnusson & V. L. Allen), pp. 76-91. New York: Academic Press.
100. MacIntyre, S. & Ellaway, A. (In press) Ecological approaches: rediscovering the role of the physical and social environment. In Social Epidemiology (eds L. Berkman & I. Kawachi). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
101. Magan̄a, A. B., Goldstein, M. J., Karno, M., et al (1986) A brief method for assessing expressed emotion in relatives of psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Research, 17, 203-212.
102. Main, M. (1991) Metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive monitoring and singular (coherent) vs multiple (incoherent) model of attachment: findings and directions for future research. In Attachment Across the Life Cyde (eds C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde & P. Marris), pp. 127-159. London: Routledge Press.
103. Kaplan, N. & Cassidy, J. (1985) Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: a move to the level of representation. Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 66-106.
104. March, J. S. (ed.) (1995) Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
105. Martin, J. A. (1981) A longitudinal study of the consequences of early mother infant interaction: a microanalytic approach. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46(3), serial no. 190.
106. Maughan, B. (1994) School influences. In Development Through Life: a Handbook for Clinicians (eds M. Rutter & D. F. Hay), pp. 134-158. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
107. McGuffin, P., Katz, R., Aldrich, J., et al (1988) The Camberwell Collaborative Depression Study. II. Investigation of family members. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 766-774.
108. McKenzie, K. & Murray, R. M. (In press) Risk factors for psychosis in the UK Afro-Caribbean population. In Ethnicity: an Agenda for Mental Health (eds D. Bhugra & V. Bahl). London: Gaskett.
109. Mednick, S. A. & Baert, A. E. (1981) Prospective Longitudinal Research: an Empirical Basis for the Primary Prevention of Psychosocial Disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
110. Harway, M. & Finello, K. M. (eds) (1984) Handbook of Longitudinal Studies.Westport, CT: Praeger Publications.
111. Meyer, A. (1957) Psychobiology: a Science of Man. Springfield, IL: Charles C.Thomas.
112. Miller, N. E. & Dollard, J. (1941) Social Learning and Imitation. New York: McGraw-Hill.
113. Mortimore, P. (1995) The positive effect of schooling. In Psychosocial Disturbance in Young People: Challenges for Prevention (ed. M. Rutter), pp. 333-363. New York: Cambridge University Press.
114. Murray, L. & Cooper, P. J. (1997) Postpartum Depression and Child Development. New York: Guilford Press.
115. O'Connor, N. (1956) The evidence for the permanently disturbing effects of mother-child separation. Acta Psychologica, 12, 174-191.
116. & Franks, C. M. (1961) Childhood upbringing and other environmental factors. In Handbook of Abnormal Psychology: an Experimental Approach (ed. H. J. Eysenck). New York: Basic Books.
117. O'Connor, T. G., Deater-Deckard, K., Fulker, D., et al (1998) Genotype - environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting. Developmental Psychology, 34, 970-981.
118. Rutter, M., Kreppner, J., et al (1999) The effects of global severe privation of cognitive competence: extension and longitudinal follow-up. Child Development, in press.
119. Osborn, A. F., Butler, N. R. & Morris, A. C. (1984) The Social Life of Britain's Five-Year-Olds. A Report of the Child Health and Education Study, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
120. Osborn, S. G. (1980) Moving home, leaving London and delinquent trends. British Journal of Criminology, 20, 54-61.
121. Parker, J. G. & Asher, S. R. (1987) Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357-389.
122. Patrick, M., Hobson, P., Castle, D., et al (1994) Personality disorder and the mental representation of early social experience. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 375-388.
123. Patterson, G. R. (1979) A performance theory for coercive family interaction. In The Analysis of Social Interactions: Methods, Issues and Illustrations (ed. R. B. Cairns), pp. 119-162, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
124. Cobb, J. A. & Ray, R. S. (1973) A social engineering technology for retraining the families of aggressive boys. In Issues and Trends in Behavior Therapy (eds H. E. Adams & I. P. Unikel), pp. 139-224. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
125. Dishion, T. J. & Chamberlain, P. (1993) Outcomes and methodological issues relating to treatment of antisocial children. In Handbook of Effective Psychotherapy (ed. T. R.Giles), pp. 43-87. New York: Plenum Press.
126. Phelps, J. L., Belsky, J. & Crnic, K. (1998) Earned security, daily stress and parenting: a comparison of five alternative models. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 21-38.
127. Pike, A., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., et al (1996) Using MZ differences in the search for nonshared environmental effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 695-704.
128. Plomin, R. (1994a) Genetic research and identification of environmental influences: Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture (1993). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 817-834.
129. (1994b) Genetics and Experience: the Interplay Between Nature and Nurture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
130. & Daniels, D (1987) Why are children in the same family so different from one another? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 10, 1-15.
131. & Bergeman, C. S. (1991) The nature of nurture: genetic influence on 'environmental' measures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 373-427.
132. DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., et al (1997) Behavioral Genetics (3rd edn). New York: W. H. Freeman.
133. Powers, E. & Witmer, H. (1951) An Experiment in the Prevention of Delinquency: the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study. New York: Columbia University Press.
134. Pringle, M. K., Butler, N. & Davie, R. (1966) 11,000 Seven Year Olds. London: Longman/National Children's Bureau.
135. Quinton, D. (1994) Cultural and community influences. In Development Through Life: a Handbook for Clinicians (eds M. Rutter & D. F. Hay), pp. 159-184. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
136. Rutter, M. & Rowlands, O. (1976) An evaluation of an interview of marriage. Psychological Medicine, 6, 577-586.
137. (1988) Parenting Breakdown: the Making and Breaking of Inter-Generational Links, Aldershot: Avebury,
138. Pickles, A., Maughan, B., et al (1993) Partners, peers, and pathways: assortative pairing and continuities in conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 763-783.
139. Radke-Yarrow, M., Campbell, J. D. & Burton, R. V. (1968) Child Rearing: an Inquiry in Research and Methods. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
140. (1970) Recollections of childhood: a study of the retrospective method. Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development, 35(5). serial no. 138.
141. Reichard, S. & Tillman, C. (1950) Patterns of parent-child relationships in schizophrenia. Psychiatry, 13, 247-257.
142. Reiss, D., Hetherington, R., Plomin, R., et al (1995) Genetic questions for environmental studies: differential parenting and psychopathology in adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 925-936.
143. Robbins, L. C. (1963) The accuracy of parental recall of aspects of child development and of child rearing practices. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 261-270.
144. Robins, L. (1966) Deviant Children Grown Up. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
145. Rowe, D. C. (1994) The Limits of Family Influence: Genes, Experience, and Behavior, New York: Guilford Press.
146. Rutter, M. (1966) Children of Sick Parents. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
147. (1971) Parent child separation: psychological effects on the children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12, 233-260.
148. (1972) Maternal Deprivation Reassessed. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin.
149. (1974) Epidemiological strategies and psychiatric concepts in research on the vulnerable child. In The Child in His Family: Children at Psychiatric Risk, Vol. 3 (eds E. Anthony & C. Koupernik), pp. 167-179. New York: Wiley.
150. (1979/80) Changing Youth in a Changing Society: Patterns of Adolescent Development and Disorder. London/ Cambridge MA: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust/ Harvard University Press.
151. (1981a) Maternal Deprivation Reassessed (2nd edn). Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin.
152. (1981b) Epidemiological/longitudinal strategies and causal research in child psychiatry. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatrists. 20, 513-544.
153. (1986) Meyerian psychobiology, personality development and the role of life experiences. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1077-1087.
154. (1989) Pathways from childhood to adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 23-51.
155. (1994) Beyond longitudinal data: causes, consequences, changes, and continuity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 928-940.
156. (1996) Transitions and turning points in developmental psychopathology: as applied to the age span between childhood and mid-adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19. 603-626.
157. (1999a) Resilience reconsidered: conceptual considerations and empirical findings. In Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention (2nd edn) (eds J. P. Shonkoll & S. J. Meisels). New York: Cambridge University Press, in press.
158. (1999b) Resilience, concepts and findings: implications for family therapy. Journal of family Therapy, in press.
159. & Brown, G. W. (1966) The reliability and validity of measures of family life and relationships in families containing a psychiatric patient. Social Psychiatry, 1, 38-53.
160. Tizard, B. & Whitmore, K. (eds) (1970) Education, Health and Behaviour. London: Longman.
161. Yule, B., Quinton, D., et al (1975) Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas: III Some factors accounting for area differences. British Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 520-533.
162. & Quinton, D. (1977) Psychiatric disorder -ecological factors and concepts of causation. In Ecological factors in Human Development (ed. H. McGurk), pp. 173-187. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
163. Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., et al (1979) Fifteen thousand Hours: Secondary Schools and Their Effects on Children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
164. & Sandberg, S. (1992) Psychosocial stressors: concepts, causes and effects. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1, 3-13.
165. & Rutter, M. (1993) Developing Minds: Challenge and Continuity Across the Lifespan. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin.
166. Silberg, J. & Simonoff, E. (1993) Whither behavioral genelics? A developmental psychopathology perspective. In Nature, Nurture, and Psychology (eds R. Plomin & G. E. McClearn), pp. 433-456. Washington, DC: APA Books.
167. Champion, L., Quinton, D., et al (1995) Understanding individual differences in environmental risk exposure. In Examining Lives in Context: Perspectives on the Ecology of Human Development (eds P. Moen, G.H. Fider, Jr & K. Lüscher), pp. 61-93, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
168. & Smith, D. J. (1995) Psychosocial Disorders in Young People: Time Trends and Their Causes, Chichester: Wiley.
169. Dunn, J., Plomin, R., et al (1997) Integrating nature and nurture: implications of person-environment correlations and interactions for developmental psychology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 335-364.
170. & the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team (1998a) Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption after severe global early privation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 465-476.
171. Giller, H. & Hagell, A. (1998b) Antisocial Behavior by Young People. New York: Cambridge University Press.
172. Silberg, J., O'Connor, T., et al (1999a) Genetics and child psychiatry: I Advances in quantitative and molecular genetics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Annual Review, 40, 3-18.
173. et al (1999b) Genetics and child psychiatry: II Empirical research findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Annual Review, 40, 19-55.
174. Sampson, R. J. & Laub, J. H. (1993) Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
175. (1996) Socioeconomic achievement in the life course of disadvantaged men: military service as a turning point, circa 1940-1965. American Sociological Review, 61, 347-367.
176. Raudenbush, S. W. & Earls, F. (1997) Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918-924.
177. Sandberg, S., McGuinness, D., Hillary, C., et al (1998) Independence of childhood life events and chronic adversities: a comparison of two patient groups and controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 728-735.
178. Scarr, S. (1992) Developmental theories for the 1990s; development and individual differences. Child Development, 63, 1-19.
179. (1997) Behavior genetic and socialization theories of intelligence: truth and reconciliation. In Intelligence, Heredity, and Environment (eds R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko), pp. 3-41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
180. & McCartney, K. (1983) How people make their own environment; a theory of genotype - environmental effects. Child Development, 54, 424-435.
181. Schachar, R., Taylor, E., Wieselberg, M., et al (1987) Changes in family function and relationships in children who respond to methylphenidate. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 728-732.
182. Scott, J. P. (1963) The process of primary socialization in canine and human infants. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 28, serial no. 85.
183. & Fuller, J. L. (1965) Genetics of the Social Behavior of the Dog. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
184. Sears, R. R., Maccoby, E. E. & Levin, H. (1957) Patterns of Child Rearing. Evanston, IL: Row & Peterson.
185. Sherif, M. & Sherif, C. W. (1953) Groups in Harmony and Tension. New York: Harper.
186. Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., et al (1961) Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
187. Skeels, H. M. & Dye, H. (1939) A study of the effects of differential stimulation on mentally retarded children. Proceedings of the American Association of Mental Deficiency, 44, 114-136.
188. H. M., Updegraft, R., Wellman, B. L., et al (1938) A study of environmental stimulation: an orphanage preschool project. University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 15(4), serial no. 362.
189. Skinner, B. F. (1938) The Behavior of Organisms: an Experimental Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
190. (1953) Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
191. Teasdale. J. D. & Barnard, P. J. (1993) Affect, Cognition, and Change: Re-Modelling Depressive Thought. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
192. Thomas, A., Chess, S. & Birch, H. G. (1968) Temperament and Behavior Disorders in Childhood. New York: New York University Press
193. Thomas, E. A. C. & Martin, J. A. (1976) Analyses of parent-infant interaction. Psychological Review, 83, 141-156.
194. & Malone, T. W. (1979) On the dynamics of two-person interactions. Psychological Review, 86, 331-360.
195. Tizard, J., Sinclzir, I. & Clarke, R. V. G. (eds) (1975) Varieties of Residential Experience. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
196. van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1995) Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: a meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387-403.
197. Wallerstein, J. S. (1983) Children of divorce: stress and developmental tasks. In Stress, Coping, and Development in Children (eds N. Garmezy & M. Rutter). pp. 265-302. New York: McGraw-Hill.
198. West, D. J. & Farrington, D. P. (1973) Who Becomes Delinquent? London: Heinemann Educational Books.
199. Wiesel, T. N. & Hubel, D. H. (1965a) Comparison of the effects of unilateral and bilateral eye closure on cortical unit responses in kittens. Journal of Neurophysiology, 28, 1029-1072.
200. (1965b) Extent of recovery from the effects of visual deprivation in kittens. Journal of Neurophysiology, 28, 1060-1072.
201. Wing, J. & Brown, G. (1970) Institutionalism and Schizophrenia: a Comparative Study of Three Mental Hospitals, 1960 1968. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
202. Wootton, B. (1959) Social Science and Social Pathology. London: Allen & Unwin.
203. Yarrow, L. J. (1961) Maternal deprivation: toward an empirical and conceptual re-evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 58, 459-490.
204. Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D., et al (1992) The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder. Psychological Medicine, 22, 971-986.
205. Zuckerman, M., Barrett, B. H. & Bragiel, R. M. (1960) The parental attitudes of parents of child guidance cases: I. Comparisons with normals, investigations of socio-economic and family constellation factors, and relations to the parents' reaction to the clinic. Child Development, 31, 401-417.