Conserving intertidal habitats: What is the potential of ecological engineering to mitigate impacts of coastal structures?

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

Volumn 167, Issue , 2015, Pages 504-515

  Perkins, Matthew J ^a,b   Ng, Terence P T ^a,b   Dudgeon, David ^b   Bonebrake, Timothy C ^b   Leung, Kenneth M Y ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Coastal engineering; Conservation; Ecological engineering; Ecosystem disturbance; Intertidal environment; Shore protection

Indexed keywords

COASTAL PROTECTION; COASTAL STRUCTURE; CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; HABITAT CONSERVATION; INTERTIDAL COMMUNITY; MARINE ECOSYSTEM; SHORELINE;

EID: 84949559964     PISSN: 02727714     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2015.10.033     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Abel N., Gorddard R., Harman B., Leitch A., Langridge J., Ryan A., Heyenga S. Sea level rise, coastal development and planned retreat: analytical framework, governance principles and an Australian case study. Environ. Sci. Policy 2011, 14:279-288.
2. Aguilera M.A., Broitman B.R., Thiel M. Spatial variability in community composition on a granite breakwater versus natural rocky shores: lack of microhabitats suppresses intertidal biodiversity. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 87:257-268.
3. Airoldi L., Beck M.W. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 2007, 45:345-405.
4. Airoldi L., Bulleri F. Anthropogenic disturbance can determine the magnitude of opportunistic species responses on marine urban infrastructures. PLoS One 2011, 6:e22985.
5. Airoldi L., Turon X., Perkol-Finkel S., Rius M. Corridors for aliens but not for natives: effects of marine urban sprawl at a region scale. Divers. Distrib. 2015, 21:755-768.
6. Al-Abdulrazzak D., Pauly D. Managing fisheries from space: Google Earth improves estimates of distant fish catches. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2014, 71:450-454.
7. An S., Li H., Guan B., Zhou C., Wang Z., Deng Z., Zhi Y., Liu Y., Xu C., Fang S., Jiang J., Li H. China's natural wetlands: past problems, current status, and future challenges. Ambio 2007, 36:335-342.
8. Arkema K.K., Guannel G., Verutes G., Wood S.A., Guerry A., Ruckelshaus M., Kareiva P., Lacayo M., Silver J.M. Coastal habitats shield people and property from sea-level rise and storms. Nat. Clim. Change 2013, 3:913-918.
9. Barbier E.B. Habitat-fishery linkages and mangrove loss in Thailand. Contemp. Econ. Policy 2003, 21:59-77.
10. Barbier E.B. Natural barriers to natural disasters: replanting mangroves after the tsunami. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2006, 4:124-131.
11. Barbier E.B. Valuing the storm protection service of estuarine and coastal ecosystems. Ecosyst. Serv. 2015, 11:32-38.
12. Barbier E.B., Hacker S.D., Kennedy C., Koch E.W., Stier A.C., Silliman B.R. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 2011, 81:169-193.
13. Barbier E.B., Koch E.W., Silliman B.R., Hacker S.D., Wolanski E., Primavera J., Granek E.F., Polansky S., Aswani S., Cramer L.A., Stoms D.M., Kennedy C.J., Bael D., Kappel C.V., Perillo G.M.E., Reed D.J. Coastal ecosystem-based management with nonlinear ecological functions and values. Science 2008, 319:321-323.
14. Beauchard O., Jacobs S., Cox T.J.S., Maris T., Vrebos D., Van Braeckel A., Meire P. A new technique for tidal habitat restoration; evaluation of its hydrological potentials. Ecol. Eng. 2011, 37:1849-1858.
15. Bilkovic D.M., Mitchell M.M. Ecological tradeoffs of stabilized salt marshes as a shoreline protection strategy: effects of artificial structures on macrobenthic assemblages. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 61:469-481.
16. Blum M.D., Roberts H.H. Drowning of the Mississippi delta due to insufficient sediment supply and global sea-level rise. Nat. Geosci. 2009, 2:488-491.
17. Borsje B.W., van Wesenbeeck B.K., Dekker F., Paalvast P., Bouma T.J., van Katwijk M.M., de Vries M.B. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecol. Eng. 2011, 37:113-122.
18. Bozek C.M., Burdick D.M. Impacts of seawalls on saltmarsh plant communities in the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire USA. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 2005, 13:553-568.
19. Brisson C.P., Coverdale T.C., Bertness M.D. Salt marsh die-off and recovery reveal disparity between the recovery of ecosystem structure and service provision. Biol. Conserv. 2014, 179:1-5.
20. Browne M.A., Chapman M.G. Ecologically informed engineering reduces loss of intertidal biodiversity on artificial shorelines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45:8204-8207.
21. Browne M.A., Chapman M.G. Mitigating against the loss of species by adding artificial intertidal pools to existing seawalls. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2014, 497:119-129.
22. Bulleri F. Role of recruitment in causing differences between intertidal assemblages in seawalls and rocky shores. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2005, 287:53-65.
23. Bulleri F., Airoldi L. Artificial marine structures facilitate the spread of a non-indigenous green algae, Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides, in the north Adriatic Sea. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 42:1063-1072.
24. Bulleri F., Chapman M.G. The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in marine environments. J. Appl. Ecol. 2010, 47:26-35.
25. Bulleri F., Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J. Patterns of movement of the limpet Cellana tramoserica on rocky shores and retaining seawalls. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004, 281:121-129.
26. Burden A., Garbutt R.A., Evans C.D., Jones D.L., Cooper D.M. Carbon sequestration and biogeochemical cycling in a saltmarsh subject to coastal managed realignment. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2013, 120:12-20.
27. CCICED (China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development) Ecosystem issues and policy options addressing sustainable development of China's ocean and coast. CCICED Annual General Meeting 2010 2010, 266-319.
28. Chapman M.G. Paucity of mobile species on constructed seawalls: effects of urbanization on biodiversity. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2003, 264:21-29.
29. Chapman M.G. Restoring intertidal boulder-fields as habitat for "specialist" and "generalist" animals. Restor. Ecol. 2012, 20:277-285.
30. Chapman M.G., Blockley D.J. Engineering novel habitats on urban infrastructure to increase intertidal biodiversity. Oecologia 2009, 161:625-635.
31. Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J. Evaluation of ecological engineering of "armoured" shorelines to improve their value as habitat. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2011, 400:302-313.
32. Clayton K.M. Sediment input from the Norfolk cliffs, Eastern England - a century of coast protection and its effect. J. Coast. Res. 1989, 5:433-442.
33. Coombes M.A., La Marca E.C., Naylor L.A., Thompson R.C. Getting into the groove: opportunities to enhance the ecological value of hard coastal infrastructure using fine-scale surface textures. Ecol. Eng. 2015, 77:314-323.
34. Cummings V., Thrush S., Hewitt J., Norkko A., Pickmere S. Terrestrial deposits on intertidal sandflats: sediment characteristics as indicators of habitat suitability for recolonizing macrofauna. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2003, 253:39-54.
35. Dafforn K.A., Glasby T.M., Airoldi L., Rivero N.K., Mayer-Pinto M., Johnston E.L. Marine urbanisation: an ecological framework for designing multifunctional artificial structures. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2015, 13:82-90.
36. Dafforn K.A., Mayer-Pinto M., Morris R.L., Waltham N.J. Application of management tools to integrate ecological principles with the design of marine infrastructure. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 158:61-73.
37. Davidson I.C., Crook A.C., Barnes D.K.A. Macrobenthic migration and its influence on the intertidal diversity dynamics of a meso-tidal system. Mar. Biol. 2004, 145:833-842.
38. Dawson R.J., Dickson M.E., Nicholls R.J., Hall J.W., Walkden M.J.A., Stansby P.K., Mokrech M., Richards J., Zhou J., Milligan J., Jordan A., Pearson S., Rees J., bates P.D., Koukoulas S., Watkinson A.R. Integrated analysis of risks of coastal flooding and cliff erosion under scenarios of long term change. Clim. Change 2009, 95:249-288.
39. de Juan S., Hewitt J. Spatial and temporal variability in species richness in a temperate intertidal community. Ecography 2014, 37:183-190.
40. Deegan L.A., Hughes J.E., Rountree R.A. Salt marsh ecosystem support of marine transient species. Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology 2000, 333-365. Kluwer Academic Publishers. M.P. Weinstein, D.A. Kreeger (Eds.).
41. Defeo O., McLachlan A. Global patterns in sandy beach macrofauna: species richness, abundance, biomass and body size. Geomorphology 2013, 199:106-114.
42. Defeo O., McLachlan A., Schoeman D.S., Schlacher T.A., Dugan J., Jones A., Lastra M., Scapini F. Threats to sandy beach ecosystems: a review. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2009, 81:1-12.
43. de Vriend H., van Koningsveld M., Aarninkhof S. 'Building with nature': the new Dutch approach to coastal and river works. Civ. Eng. 2014, 167:18-24.
44. Drexler J.Z., Krauss K.W., Sasser M.C., Fuller C.C., Swarzenski C.M., Powell A., Swanson K.M., Orlando J. A long-term comparison of carbon sequestration rates in impounded and naturally tidal freshwater marshes along the lower Waccamaw River, South Carolina. Wetlands 2013, 33:965-974.
45. Duarte C.M., Losada I.J., Hendriks I.E., Mazarrasa I., Marba N. The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat. Clim. Change 2013, 3:961-968.
46. Dugan J.E., Hubbard D.M., Rodil I.F., Revell D.L., Schroeter S. Ecological effects of coastal armouring on sandy beaches. Mar. Ecol. 2008, 29:160-170.
47. Dugan J.E., Airoldi L., Chapman M.G., Walker S.J., Schlacher T. Estuarine and coastal structures: environmental effects, a focus on shore and nearshore structures. Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science 2011, vol. 8:17-41. Academic Press, Waltham.
48. Dyson K., Yocom K. Ecological design for urban waterfronts. Urban Ecosyst. 2015, 18:189-208.
49. Evans A.J., Firth L.B., Hawkins S.J., Morris E.S., Goudge H., Moore P.J. Drill-cored rock pools: an effective method of ecological enhancement on artificial structures. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2015, (in press). 10.1071/MF14244.
50. Fauvelot C., Bertozzi F., Costantini F., Airoldi L., Abbiati M. Lower genetic diversity in the limpet Patella caerulea on urban coastal structures compared to natural rocky habitats. Mar. Biol. 2009, 156:2313-2323.
51. Feagin R.A., Smith W.K., Psuty N.P., Young D.R., Martinez M.L., Carter G.A., Lucas K.L., Gibeaut J.C., Gemma J.N., Koske R.E. Barrier islands: coupling anthropogenic stability with ecological sustainability. J. Coast. Res. 2010, 26:987-992.
52. Feagin R.A., Mukherjee N., Shanker K., Baird A.H., Cinner J., Kerr A.M., Koedam N., Sridhar A., Arthur R., Jayatissa L.P., Lo Seen D., Menon M., Rodriguez S., Shamsuddoha Md, Dahdouh-Guebas F. Shelter from the storm? Use and misuse of coastal vegetation bioshields for managing natural disasters. Conserv. Lett. 2010, 3:1-11.
53. Ferrario F., Beck M.W., Storlazzi C.D., Micheli F., Shepard C.C. The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5:3794.
54. Firth L.B., Thompson R.C., White F.J., Schofield M., Skov M.W., Hoggart S.P.G., Jackson J., Knights A.M., Hawkins S.J. The importance of water-retaining features for biodiversity on artificial intertidal coastal defence structures. Divers. Distrib. 2013, 19:1275-1283.
55. Firth L.B., Thompson R.C., Bohn K., Abbiati M., Airoldi L., Bouma T.J., Bozzeda F., Ceccherelli V.U., Colangelo M.A., Evans A., Ferrario F., Hanley M.E., Hinz H., Hoggart S.P.G., Jackson J.E., Moore P., Morgan E.H., Perkol-Finkel S., Skov M.W., Strain E.M., van Belzen J., Hawkins S.J. Between a rock and a hard place: environmental and engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures. Coast. Eng. 2014, 87:122-135.
56. Firth L.B., White F.J., Schofield M., Hanley M.E., Burrows M.T., Thompson R.C., Skov M.W., Evans A.J., Moore P.J., Hawkins S.J. Facing the future: the importance of substratum features for ecological engineering of artificial habitats in the rocky intertidal. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2015, 66:1-13.
57. French P.W. Managed realignment - the developing story of a comparatively new approach to soft engineering. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2006, 67:409-423.
58. Gedan K.B., Kirwan M.L., Wolanski E., Barbier E.B., Silliman B.R. The present and future role of coastal vegetation in protecting shorelines: answering recent challenges to the paradigm. Clim. Change 2011, 106:7-29.
59. Gittman R.K., Popowich A.M., Bruno J.F., Peterson C.H. Marshes with and without sills protect shorelines from erosion better than bulkheads during a category 1 hurricane. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2014, 102:94-102.
60. Goodsell P.J., Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J. Differences between biota in anthropogenically fragmented habitats and in naturally patchy habitats. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2007, 351:15-23.
61. Hallegatte S., Green C., Nicholls R.J., Corfee-Morlot J. Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat. Clim. Change 2013, 3:802-806.
62. Han Q., Schaefer W., Barry N. Land reclamation using waste as fill material: a case study in Jakarta. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2013, 7:669-678.
63. Haslett S.K. Coastal Systems. Routledge Introductions to the Environment 2009, Routledge, Oxon, UK. second ed.
64. Hawkins S.J., Hartnoll R.G. A study of the small-scale relationship between species number and area on a rocky shore. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci. 1980, 10:201-214.
65. Hoggart S., Hawkins S.J., Bohn K., Airoldi L., Belzen J van, Bichot A., Bilton D.T., Bouma T.J., Colangelo M.A., Davies A.J., Ferrario F., Firth L.B., Galván C., Hanley M., Heurtefeux H., Lara J.L., Rodriguez I.L., Maza M., Eizaguirre B.O., Rundle S.D., Skov M.W., Strain E.M., White A., Zhang L., Zhu Z., Thompson R.C. Chapter 4-ecological approaches to coastal risk mitigation. Coastal Risk Management in a Changing Climate 2015, 171-234. Academic Press (Elsevier). N. Zanuttigh, Vanderlinden, Thompson, Burcharth (Eds.).
66. Huang W.P., Yim J.Z. Sand dune restoration experiments at Bei-Men Coast, Taiwan. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 73:409-420.
67. Ivesa L., Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J., Murphy R.J. Differential patterns of distribution of limpets on intertidal seawalls: experimental investigation of the roles of recruitment, survival and competition. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2010, 407:55-69.
68. Jackson A.C., Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J. Ecological interactions in the provision of habitat by urban development: whelks and engineering by oysters on artificial seawalls. Austral Ecol. 2008, 33:307-316.
69. Jackson A.C., McIlvenny J. Coastal squeeze on rocky shores in northern Scotland and some possible ecological impacts. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2011, 400:314-321.
70. Jackson N.L., Nordstrom K.F. Strategies to conserve and enhance sandy barrier habitat for horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) on developed shorelines in Delaware Bay, United States. Biology and Conservation of Horseshoe Crabs 2009, 399-416. Springer. J.T. Tanacredi, M.L. Botton, D. Smith (Eds.).
71. Jones H.P., Hole D.G., Zavaleta E.S. Harnessing nature to help people adapt to climate change. Nat. Clim. Change 2012, 2:504-509.
72. Jones L., Angus S., Cooper A., Doody P., Everard M., Garbutt A., Gilchrist P., Hansom J., Nicholls R., Pye K., Ravenscroft N., Rees S., Rhind P., Whitehouse A. Coastal margins. The UK National Ecosystem Assessment Technical Report. UK National Ecosystem Assessment 2011, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.
73. Klein J.C., Underwood A.J., Chapman M.G. Urban structures provide new insights into interactions among grazers and habitat. Ecol. Appl. 2011, 21:427-438.
74. Lai S., Loke L.H.L., Hilton M.J., Bouma T.J., Todd P.A. The effects of urbanisation on coastal habitats and the potential for ecological engineering: a Singapore case study. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2015, 103:78-85.
75. Lam N.W.Y., Huang R., Chan B.K.K. Variations in intertidal assemblages and zonation patterns between vertical artificial seawalls and natural rocky shores: a case study from Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong. Zool. Stud. 2009, 48:184-195.
76. Landschoff J., Lackschewitz D., Kesy K., Reise K. Globalization pressure and habitat change: Pacific rocky shore crabs invade armoured shorelines in the Atlantic Wadden Sea. Aquat. Invasions 2013, 8:77-87.
77. Lee T.H., Li M.H. Intertidal assemblages on artificial structures and natural rocky habitats on Taiwan's north coast. Raffles Bull. Zool. 2013, 61:331-342.
78. Lin N., Emanuel K., Oppenheimer M., Vanmarcke E. Physically based assessment of hurricane surge threat under climate change. Nat. Clim. Change 2012, 2:462-467.
79. Loke L.H.L., Ladle R.J., Bouma T.J., Todd P.A. Creating complex habitats for restoration and reconciliation. Ecol. Eng. 2015, 77:307-313.
80. Lotze H.K., Coll M., Magera A.M., Ward-Paige C., Airoldi L. Recovery of marine animal populations and ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2011, 26:595-605.
81. Macintosh D.J., Ashton E.C., Havanon S. Mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2002, 55:331-345.
82. MacKinnon J., Verkuil Y.I., Murray N. IUCN Situation Analysis on East and Southeast Asian Intertidal Habitats, with Particular Reference to the Yellow Sea (Including the Bohai Sea) 2012, Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 47, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, ii + 70 pp.
83. Martin D., Bertasi F., Colangelo M.A., de Vries M., Frost M., Hawkins S.J., Macpherson E., Moschella P.S., Satta M.P., Thompson R.C., Ceccherelli V.U. Ecological impact of coastal defence structures on sediment and mobile fauna: evaluating and forecasting consequences of unavoidable modifications of native habitats. Coast. Eng. 2005, 52:1027-1051.
84. Martins G.M., Amaral A.F., Wallenstein F.M., Neto A.I. Influence of a breakwater on a nearby rocky intertidal community structure. Mar. Environ. Res. 2009, 67:237-245.
85. Martins G.M., Thompson R.C., Neto A.I., Hawkins S.J., Jenkins S.R. Enhancing stocks of the exploited limpet Patella candei d'Orbigny via modifications in coastal engineering. Biol. Conserv. 2010, 143:203-211.
86. Martinez M.L., Intralawan A., Vazquez G., Perez-Maqueo O., Sutton P., Landgrave R. The coasts of our world: ecological, economic and social importance. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 63:254-272.
87. Moreira J., Chapman M.G., Underwood A.J. Seawalls do not sustain viable populations of limpets. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2006, 322:179-188.
88. Mossman H.L., Davy A.J., Grant A. Does managed coastal realignment create saltmarshes with 'equivalent biological characteristics' to natural reference sites?. J. Appl. Ecol. 2012, 49:1446-1456.
89. Moschella P.S., Abbiati M., Aberg P., Airoldi L., Anderson J.M., Bacchiocchi F., Bulleri F., Dinesen G.E., Frost M., Gacia E., Granhag L., Jonsson P.R., Satta M.P., Sundelof A., Thompson R.C., Hawkins S.J. Low-crested coastal defence structures as artificial habitats for marine life: using ecological criteria in design. Coast. Eng. 2005, 52:1053-1071.
90. Munari C., Corbau C., Simeoni U., Mistri M. Coastal defence through low crested breakwater structures: jumping out of the frying pan into the fire?. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62:1641-1651.
91. Murray N.J., Clemens R.S., Phinn S.R., Possingham H.P., Fuller R.A. Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2014, 12:267-272.
92. Naylor L.A., Coombes M.A., Venn O., Roast S.D., Thompson R.C. Facilitating ecological enhancement of coastal infrastructure: the role of policy, people and planning. Environ. Sci. Policy 2012, 22:36-46.
93. Nicholls R.J., Cazenave A. Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science 2010, 328:1517-1520.
94. Nordstrom K.F. Living with shore protection structures: a review. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2014, 150:11-23.
95. Orford J.D., Pethick J. Challenging assumptions of future coastal habitat development around the UK. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 2006, 31:1625-1642.
96. Pennings S.C., Grant M.B., Bertness M.D. Plant zonation in low-latitude saltmarshes: disentangling the roles of flooding, salinity and competition. J. Ecol. 2005, 93:159-167.
97. Perkol-Finkel S., Ferrario F., Nicotera V., Airoldi L. Conservation challenges in urban seascapes: promoting the growth of threatened species on coastal infrastructures. J. Appl. Ecol. 2012, 49:1457-1466.
98. Petillon J., Potier S., Carpentier A., Garbutt A. Evaluating the success of managed realignment for the restoration of salt marshes: lessons from invertebrate communities. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 69:70-75.
99. Peyronnin N., Green M., Richards C.P., Owens A., Reed D., Chamberlain J., Groves D.G., Rhinehart W.K., Belhadjali K. Louisiana's 2012 coastal master plan: overview of a science-based and publicly informed decision-making process. J. Coast. Res. 2013, SI67:1-15.
100. Pister B. Urban marine ecology in southern California: the ability of riprap structures to serve as rocky intertidal habitat. Mar. Biol. 2009, 156:861-873.
101. Primavera J.H. Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: institutional issues. Ecol. Econ. 2000, 35:91-106.
102. Puente-Rodriguez D., Swart J.A.A., Middag M., Van der Windt H.J. Identities, communities, and practices in the transition towards sustainable mussel fishery in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Hum. Ecol. 2015, 43:93-104.
103. Raffaelli D., Hawkins S. Intertidal Ecology 1996, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
104. Raftery A.E., Alkema L., Gerland P. Bayesian population projections for the United Nations. Stat. Sci. 2014, 29:58-68.
105. Rivera-Ingraham G.A., Espinosa F., Garcia-Gomez J.C. Effect of γ-amino butyric acid on limpet populations: towards the future management and conservation of endangered Patellid species. J. Chem. Ecol. 2011, 37:1-9.
106. Samson M.S., Rollon R.N. Growth performance of planted mangroves in the Philippines: revisiting forest management strategies. Ambio 2008, 37:234-240.
107. Sanchez-Archilla A., Sierra J.P., Caceres I., Gonzalez D., Alsina J.M., Montoya F., Galofre J. Beach dynamics in the prescence of a low crested structure. The Altafulla case. J. Coast. Res. 2006, SI39:759-764.
108. Seto K.C., Fragkias M., Guneralp B., Reilly M.K. A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion. PLoS One 2011, 6:e23777.
109. Sheaves M., Baker R., Nagelkerken I., Connolly R.M. True value of estuarine and coastal nurseries for fish: incorporating complexity and dynamics. Estuaries Coasts 2015, 38:401-414.
110. Shepard C.C., Crain C.M., Beck M.W. The protective role of coastal marshes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2011, 6:e27374.
111. Spalding M.D., McIvor A.L., Beck M.W., Koch E.W., Moller I., Reed D.J., Rubinoff P., Spencer T., Tolhurst T.J., Wamsley T.V., van Wesenbeeck B.K., Wolanski E., Woodroffe C.D. Coastal ecosystems: a critical element of risk reduction. Conserv. Lett. 2014, 7:293-301.
112. Spencer K.L., Harvey G.L. Understanding system disturbance and ecosystem services in restored saltmarshes: integrating physical and biogeochemical processes. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2012, 106:23-32.
113. Temmerman S., Meire P., Bouma T.J., Herman P.M.J., Ysebaert T., De Vriend H.J. Ecosystem-based coastal defence in the face of global change. Nature 2013, 504:79-83.
114. Teuchies J., Vandenbruwaene W., Carpentier R., Bervoets L., Temmerman S., Wang C., Maris T., Cox T.J.S., Van Braeckel A., Meire P. Estuaries as filters: the role of tidal marshes in trace metal removal. PLoS One 2013, 8:e70381.
115. Thomas K. Managed realignment in the UK: the role of the environment Agency. Managed Realignment: a Viable Long-term Coastal Management Strategy? 2014, 83-94. SpringBriefs in Environmental Science. L.S. Esteves (Ed.).
116. Thrush S.F., Hewitt J.E., Cummings V.J., Ellis J.I., Hatton C., Lohrer A., Norkko A. Muddy waters: elevating sediment input to coastal and estuarine habitats. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2004, 2:299-306.
117. Thrush S.F., Chiantore M., Asnaghi V., Hewitt J., Fiorentino D., Cattaneo-Vietti R. Habitat-diversity relationships in rocky shore algal turf infaunal communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2011, 424:119-132.
118. Toft J.D., Ogston A.S., Heerhartz S.M., Cordell J.R., Flemer E.E. Ecological response and physical stability of habitat enhancements along an urban armoured shoreline. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 57:97-108.
119. Turner R.K., Burgess D., Hadley D., Coombes E., Jackson N. A cost-benefit appraisal of coastal managed realignment policy. Glob. Environ. Change 2007, 17:397-407.
120. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 2014. http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/issues/coastal_zones.asp.
121. van der Zee E.M., Tielens E., Holthuijsen S., Donadi S., Eriksson B.K., van der Veer H.W., Piersma T., Olff H., van der Heide T. Habitat modification drives benthic trophic diversity in an intertidal soft-bottom ecosystem. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2015, 465:41-48.
122. Vaselli S., Bulleri F., Benedetti-Cecchi L. Hard coastal-defence structures as habitats for native and exotic rocky-bottom species. Mar. Environ. Res. 2008, 66:395-403.
123. Walsh K.J.E., Betts H., Church J., Pittock A.B., McInnes K.L., Jackett D.R., McDougall T.J. Using sea level rise projections for urban planning in Australia. J. Coast. Res. 2004, 20:586-598.
124. Wang X., Chen W., Zhang L., Jin D., Lu C. Estimating the ecosystem service losses from proposed land reclamations projects: a case study in Xiamen. Ecol. Econ. 2010, 69:2549-2556.
125. Warren R.S., Fell P.E., Rozsa R., Brawley A.H., Orsted A.C., Olsen E.T., Swamy V., Niering W.A. Salt marsh restoration in Connecticut: 20 years of science and management. Restor. Ecol. 2002, 10:497-513.
126. Williams G.A. The relationship between shade and molluscan grazing in structuring communities on a moderately-exposed tropical rocky shore. J. Exp. Maine Biol. Ecol. 1994, 178:79-95.
127. Wilson A.M.W., Mugerauer R., Klinger T. Rethinking marine infrastructure policy and practice: insights from three large-scale marina developments in Seattle. Mar. Policy 2015, 53:67-82.
128. World Resources Institute A Guide to World Resources 2000-2001; People and Ecosystems: the Fragile Web of Life 2000, World Resource Institute, Washington DC.
129. Zhao B., Kreuter U., Li B., Ma Z., Chen J., Nakagoshi N. An ecosystem service value assessment of land-use change on Chongming Island, China. Land Use Policy 2004, 21:139-148.
130. zu Ermgassen P.S.E., Spalding M.D., Grizzle R.E., Brumbaugh R.D. Quantifying the loss of a marine ecosystem service: filtration by the Eastern Oyster in US estuaries. Estuaries Coasts 2013, 36:36-43.