Acute coronary syndromes

Evidence-Based Cardiology Consult

Volumn 9781447144410, Issue , 2014, Pages 15-36

  Delgado, Gabriel A ^a   Abbott, J Dawn ^b  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b RHODE ISLAND HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute coronary syndrome; Myocardial infarction; Percutaneous coronary intervention; Plaque rupture; Thrombus; Unstable angina

Indexed keywords

EID: 84949175355     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4471-4441-0_2     Document Type: Chapter

References (138)

1. Braunwald E. Unstable angina. A classifi cation. Circulation. 1989;80(2):410-4.
2. Scirica BM, Cannon CP, McCabe CH, et al. Prognosis in the thrombolysis in myocardial ischemia III registry according to the Braunwald unstable angina pectoris classifi cation. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:821-6.
3. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. Executive summary: heart disease and stroke statistics-2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2012;125(1):188-97.
4. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, et al. American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2009 update. A report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2009;119(3):480-6.
5. Fuster V, Badimon L, Badimon JJ, et al. The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease and the acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(5):310-8.
6. Libby P. Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2001;104(3):365-72.
7. Sullivan E, Kearney M, Isner JM, et al. Pathology of unstable angina: analysis of biopsies obtained by directional coronary atherectomy. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 1994;1(1):63-71.
8. Mizuno K, Satumo K, Miyamoto A, et al. Angioscopic evaluation of coronary artery thrombi in acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(5):287-91.
9. Chen L, Chester MR, Crook R, Kaski JC. Differential progression of complex culprit stenoses in patients with stable and unstable angina pectoris. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28(3):597-603.
10. Little WC, Constantinescu M, Applegate RJ, et al. Can coronary angiography predict the site of a subsequent myocardial infarction in patients with mild-to-moderate coronary artery disease? Circulation. 1988;78:1157-66.
11. Rioufol G, Finet G, Ginon I, et al. Multiple atherosclerotic plaque rupture in acute coronary syndrome: a three-vessel intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation. 2002;106(7):804-8.
12. Anderson JL, Adams CD, Antman EM, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/ non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 50(7):e1-157.
13. Summers RL, Cooper GJ, Carlton FB, et al. Prevalence of atypical chest pain descriptions in a population from the southern United States. Am J Med Sci. 1999;318(3):142-5.
14. Pope JH, Ruthazer R, Beshansky JR, et al. Clinical features of emergency department patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of acute cardiac ischemia: a multicenter study. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 1998;6(1):63-74.
15. Braunwald E, Mark DB, Jones RH, et al. Unstable angina: diagnosis and management, AHCPR Publication No. 94-0602. Rockville: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, US Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services; 1994.
16. Henrikson CA, Howell EE, Bush DE, et al. Chest pain relief by nitroglycerin does not predict active coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:979-86.
17. Jayes Jr RL, Beshansky JR, D?Agostino RB, Selker HP. Do patients? coronary risk factor reports predict acute cardiac ischemia in the emergency department? A multicenter study. J Clin Epidemiol. 1992;45(6):621-6.
18. Pryor DB, Shaw L, McCants CB, et al. Value of the history and physical in identifying patients at increased risk for coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118(2):81-90.
19. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction-executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2004;110(5):588-636.
20. Cannon CP, McCabe CH, Stone PH, et al. The electrocardiogram predicts one-year outcome of patients with unstable angina and non-Q wave myocardial infarction: results of the TIMI III Registry ECG Ancillary Study. Thrombolysis in Myocardial Ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30(1):133-40.
21. Manari A, Albiero R, De Servi S. High-risk non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction versus ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: same behaviour and outcome? J Cardiovasc Med. 2009;10 Suppl 1:S13-6.
22. Savonitto S, Ardissino D, Granger CB, et al. Prognostic value of the admission electrocardiogram in acute coronary syndromes. JAMA. 1999;281(8):707-13.
23. Platelet Receptor Inhibition for Ischemic Syndrome Management in Patients Limited by Unstable Signs and Symptoms (PRISMPLUS) Trial Investigators. Inhibition of the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor with tirofi ban in unstable angina and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(21):1488-97.
24. Brush YE, Brand DA, Acamporci D, et al. Use of the initial electrocardiogram to predict in-hospital complications of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:1137-41.
25. Slater DK, Hlatky MA, Mark DB, et al. Outcome in suspected acute myocardial infarction with normal or minimally abnormal admission electrocardiographic fi ndings. Am J Cardiol. 1987;60: 766-70.
26. Boden WE, Kleiger RE, Gibson RS, et al. Favourable long term prognosis in patients with non-Q wave acute myocardial infarction not associated with specifi c electrocardiographic changes. Br Heart J. 1989;61:396-402.
27. Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP. Myocardial infarction redefi ned-a consensus document Of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefi nition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36(3):959-69.
28. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, White HD, et al. Universal defi nition of myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2007;116:2634-53.
29. Ottani F, Galvani M, Nicolini FA, et al. Elevated cardiac troponin levels predict the risk of adverse outcome in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Am Heart J. 2000;140(6):917-27.
30. Antman EM, Tanasijevic MJ, Thompson B, et al. Cardiac-specifi c troponin I levels to predict the risk of mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(18):1342-9.
31. Shapiro BP, Babuin L, Jaffe AS. Cardiac biomarkers. In: Murphy JG, Lloyd MA, editors. Mayo clinic cardiology: concise textbook. 3rd ed. Rochester/Boca Raton: Mayo Clinic Scientifi c Press and New York/Informa Healthcare; 2007. p. 773-80.
32. Sabatine MS, Antman EM. The thrombolysis in myocardial infarction risk score in unstable angina/non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(S):89S-95.
33. Eagle KA, Lim MJ, Dabbous OH, et al. A validated prediction model for all forms of acute coronary syndrome: estimating the risk of 6-month post discharge death in an international registry. JAMA. 2004;291:2727-33.
34. de Araujo GP, Ferreira J, Aguiar C, et al. TIMI, PURSUIT, and GRACE risk scores: sustained prognostic value and interaction with revascularization in NSTE-ACS. Eur Heart J. 2005;26: 865-72.
35. Antman EM, Cohen M, Bernink PJ, et al. The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: a method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making. JAMA. 2000;284: 835-42.
36. Wright RS, Anderson JL, Adams CD, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/ Non-ST- elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines developed in collaboration with the American Academy of Family Physicians, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57(19):e215-367.
37. Kushner FG, Hand M, Smith Jr SC, et al. 2009 focused updates: ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction and ACC/AHA/SCAI guidelines on percutaneous coronary intervention a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(23):2205-41.
38. Th?roux P, Ouimet H, McCans J, et al. Aspirin, heparin or both to treat unstable angina. N Engl J Med. 1988;319(17):1105-11.
39. Group RISC. Risk of myocardial infarction and death during treatment with low dose aspirin and intravenous heparin in men with unstable coronary artery disease. Lancet. 1990;336(8719): 827-30.
40. Oler A, Whooley MA, Oler J, Grady D. Adding heparin to aspirin reduces the incidence of myocardial infarction and death in patients with unstable angina. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1996;276(10):811-5.
41. Martel N, Lee J, Wells PS. Risk for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin thromboprophylaxis: a meta-analysis. Blood. 2005;106(8): 2710-5.
42. Smythe MA, Koerber JM, Mattson JC. The incidence of recognized heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in a large, tertiary care teaching hospital. Chest. 2007;131(6):1644-7.
43. Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(20): 1330-5.
44. Swahn E, Wallentin L. Low-molecular-weight heparin (Fragmin) during instability in coronary artery disease (FRISC). FRISC study group. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80(5A):25E-9.
45. Petersen JL, Mahaffey KW, Hasselblad V, et al. Efficacy and bleeding complications among patients randomized to enoxaparin or unfractionated heparin for antithrombin therapy in non-ST- segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: a systematic overview. JAMA. 2004;292(1):89-96.
46. Cohen M, Demers C, Gurfi nkel EP, et al. A comparison of lowmolecular-weight heparin with unfractionated heparin for unstable coronary artery disease. Efficacy and Safety of Subcutaneous Enoxaparin in Non-Q-Wave Coronary Events Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(7):447-52.
47. Antman EM, McCabe CH, Gurfi nkel EP, et al. Enoxaparin prevents death and cardiac ischemic events in unstable angina/non-Qwave myocardial infarction. Results of the thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) 11B trial. Circulation. 1999;100(15):1593-601.
48. Ferguson JJ, Califf RM, Antman EM, et al. Enoxaparin vs unfractionated heparin in high-risk patients with non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes managed with an intended early invasive strategy: primary results of the SYNERGY randomized trial. JAMA. 2004;292(1):45-54.
49. de Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Wiviott SD, A to Z Investigators, et al. Enoxaparin versus unfractionated heparin in patients treated with tirofi ban, aspirin and an early conservative initial management strategy: results from the a phase of the A-to-Z trial. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(19):1688-94.
50. Califf RM, Petersen JL, Hasselblad V, et al. A perspective on trials comparing enoxaparin and unfractionated heparin in the treatment of non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes. Am Heart J. 2005;149(4 Suppl):S91-9.
51. de Lemos JA, Rifai N, Morrow DA, et al. Elevated baseline myoglobin is associated with increased mortality in acute coronary syndromes, even among patients with normal baseline troponin I: a TIMI 11B substudy. Circulation. 1999;100(suppl I): I372-3.
52. Antman EM, Morrow DA, McCabe CH, et al. Enoxaparin versus unfractionated heparin with fi brinolysis for ST-elevation myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1477-88.
53. Murphy SA, Gibson CM, Morrow DA, et al. Efficacy and safety of the low-molecular weight heparin enoxaparin compared with unfractionated heparin across the acute coronary syndrome spectrum: a meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2077-86.
54. Montalescot G, Zeymer U, Silvain J, et al. Intravenous enoxaparin or unfractionated heparin in primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-elevation myocardial infarction: the international randomised open-label ATOLL trial. Lancet. 2011;378(9792): 693-703.
55. Navarese EP, De Luca G, Castriota F, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparins vs. unfractionated heparin in the setting of percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9:1902-15.
56. Fifth Organization to Assess Strategies in Acute Ischemic Syndromes Investigators, Yusuf S, Mehta SR, Chrolavicius S, Afzal R, Pogue J, et al. Comparison of fondaparinux and enoxaparin in acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(14): 1464-76.
57. MICHELANGELO OASIS-5 Steering Committee, Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Granger CB, et al. Design and rationale of the MICHELANGELO Organization to Assess Strategies in Acute Ischemic Syndromes (OASIS)-5 trial program evaluating fondaparinux, a synthetic factor Xa inhibitor, in patients with non-ST- segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Am Heart J. 2005;150(6):1107.
58. Yusuf S, Mehta SR, Chrolavicius S, et al. Effects of fondaparinux on mortality and reinfarction in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: the OASIS-6 randomized trial. JAMA. 2006;295:1519-30.
59. The Global Use of Strategies to Open Occluded Coronary Arteries (GUSTO) IIa Investigators. Randomized trial of intravenous heparin versus recombinant hirudin for acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 1994;90:1631-7.
60. Antman EM. Hirudin in acute myocardial infarction: Thrombolysis and Thrombin Inhibition in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) 9B trial. Circulation. 1996;94:911-21.
61. Organisation to Assess Strategies for Ischemic Syndromes (OASIS-2) Investigators. Effects of recombinant hirudin (lepirudin) compared with heparin on death, myocardial infarction, refractory angina, and revascularisation procedures in patients with acute myocardial ischaemia without ST elevation: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;353:429-38.
62. Lincoff AM, Bittl JA, Harrington RA, et al. Bivalirudin and provisional glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockade compared with heparin and planned glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockade during percutaneous coronary intervention: REPLACE-2 randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;289:853-63.
63. Stone GW, McLaurin BT, Cox DA, et al. Bivalirudin for patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2203-16.
64. Stone GW, White HD, Ohman EM, et al. Bivalirudin in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: a subgroup analysis from the Acute Catheterization and Urgent Intervention Triage strategy (ACUITY) trial. Lancet. 2007;369:907-19.
65. Stone GW, Witzenbichler B, Guagliumi G, et al. Bivalirudin during primary PCI in acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2218-30.
66. Kastrati A, Neumann F, Schulz S, et al. Abciximab and heparin versus bivalirudin for non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1980-9.
67. Stone GW, Witzenbichler B, Guagliumi G, et al. Heparin plus a glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor versus bivalirudin monotherapy and paclitaxel-eluting stents versus bare-metal stents in acute myocardial infarction (HORIZONS-AMI): fi nal 3-year results from a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;377: 2193-204.
68. The Direct Thrombin Inhibitor Trialists? Collaborative Group. Direct thrombin inhibitors in acute coronary syndromes: principal results of a meta-analysis based on individual patients? data. Lancet. 2002;359:294-302.
69. Lewis HD, Davis JW, Archibald DG, et al. Protective effects of aspirin against acute myocardial infarction and death in men with unstable angina. N Engl J Med. 1983;309(7):396-403.
70. Cairns JA, Gent M, Singer J, et al. Aspirin, sulfi npyrazone, or both in unstable angina; results of a Canadian multicenter trial. N Engl J Med. 1985;313(22):1369-75.
71. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy-I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. Antiplatelet Trialists? Collaboration. BMJ. 1994; 308(6921): 81-106.
72. Alexander JH, Harrington RA, Tuttle RH, et al. Prior aspirin use predicts worse outcomes in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes. PURSUIT Investigators. Platelet IIb/IIIa in Unstable angina: Receptor Suppression Using Integrilin Therapy. Am J Cardiol. 1999;83(8):1147-51.
73. Michelson AD, Cattaneo M, Eikelboom JW, Gurbel P, Kottke-Marchant K, Kunicki TJ, et al. Aspirin resistance: position paper of the working group on aspirin resistance. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3(6):1309-11.
74. Hankey GJ, Eikelboom JW. Aspirin resistance. Lancet. 2006; 367(9510):606-17.
75. Antithrombotic Trialists? Collaboration. Collaborative metaanalysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ. 2002;324(7329):71-86.
76. The CURRENT-OASIS Investigators. Dose comparisons of clopidogrel and aspirin in acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:930-42.
77. Peters RJ, Mehta SR, Fox KA, et al. Effects of aspirin dose when used alone or in combination with clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes: observations from the clopidogrel in unstable angina to prevent recurrent events (CURE) study. Circulation. 2003;108(14):1682-7.
78. Silber S, Albertsson P, Avil?s FF, et al. Guidelines for percutaneous coronary interventions. The Task Force for Percutaneous Coronary Interventions of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(8):804-47.
79. Love BB, Biller J, Gent M. Adverse haematological effects of ticlopidine. Prevention, recognition and management. Drug Saf. 1998;19:89-98.
80. Balsano F, Rizzon P, Violi F, et al. Antiplatelet treatment with ticlopidine in un- stable angina. A controlled multicenter clinical trial. The Studio della Ticlopidina nell?Angina Instabile Group. Circulation. 1990;82(1):17-26.
81. Urban P, Macaya C, Rupprecht HJ, et al. Randomized evaluation of anticoagulation versus antiplatelet therapy after coronary stent implantation in high-risk patients: the multicenter aspirin and ticlopidine trial after intracoronary stenting (MATTIS). Circulation. 1998;98(20):2126-32.
82. Yusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, et al. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(7):494-502.
83. Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, et al. Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study. Lancet. 2001;358(9281):527-33.
84. Patti G, Colonna G, Pasceri V, et al. Randomized trial of high loading dose of clopidogrel for reduction of periprocedural myocardial infarction in patients undergoing coronary intervention. Results from the ARMYDA-2 (Antiplatelet therapy for Reduction of MYocardial Damage during Angioplasty) study. Circulation. 2005;111:2099-106.
85. Sabatine MS, Cannon CP, Gibson CM, et al. Addition of clopidogrel to aspirin and fi brinolytic therapy for myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(12): 1179-89.
86. Sabatine MS, Cannon CP, Gibson CM, et al. Effect of clopidogrel pretreatment before percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with fi brinolytics. The PCI-CLARITY study. JAMA. 2005;294:1224-32.
87. Oqueli E, Hiscock M, Dick R. Clopidogrel resistance. Heart Lung Circ. 2007;16 Suppl 3:S17-28.
88. Lev EI, Patel RT, Maresh KJ, et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel drug response in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the role of dual drug resistance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47(1):27-33.
89. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Hiatt BL, O?Connor CM. Clopidogrel for coronary stenting: response variability, drug resistance, and the effect of pretreatment platelet reactivity. Circulation. 2003; 107(23):2908-13.
90. Müller I, Besta F, Schulz C, et al. Prevalence of clopidogrel nonresponders among patients with stable angina pectoris scheduled for elective coronary stent placement. Thromb Haemost. 2003; 89(5):783-7.
91. Shuldiner AR, O?Connell JR, Bliden KP, et al. Association of cytochrome P450 2C19 genotype with the antiplatelet effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel therapy. JAMA. 2009;302: 849-57.
92. Simon T, Verstuyft C, Mary-Krause M, et al. Genetic determinants of response to clopidogrel and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:363-75.
93. Trenk D, Hochholzer W, Fromm MF, et al. Cytochrome P450 2C19 681G > a polymorphism and high on-clopidogrel platelet reactivity associated with adverse 1-year clinical outcome of elective percutaneous coronary intervention with drug-eluting or baremetal stents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1925-34.
94. Nguyen TA, Diodati JG, Pharand C. Resistance to clopidogrel: a review of the evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(8):1157-64.
95. Sweeny JM, Gorog DA, Fuster V. Antiplatelet drug ?resistance?. Part 1: mechanisms and clinical measurements. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2009;6(4):273-82.
96. Price MJ, Berger PB, Teirstein PS, et al. Standard- vs high-dose clopidogrel based on platelet function testing after percutaneous coronary intervention: the GRAVITAS randomized trial. JAMA. 2011;305(11):1097-105.
97. O?Donoghue ML, Braunwald E, Antman EM, et al. Pharmacodynamic effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel and prasugrel with or without a proton-pump inhibitor: an analysis of two randomised trials. Lancet. 2009;374:989-97.
98. Bhatt DL, Cryer BL, Contant CF, et al. Clopidogrel with or without omeprazole in coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363:1909-17.
99. Abraham NS, Hlatky MA, Antman EM, et al. ACCF/ACG/AHA 2010 expert consensus document on the concomitant use of proton pump inhibitors and thienopyridines: a focused update of the ACCF/ACG/AHA 2008 expert consensus document on reducing the gastrointestinal risks of antiplatelet therapy and NSAID use. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:2051-66.
100. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(20):2001-15.
101. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Intensive oral antiplatelet therapy for reduction of ischaemic events including stent thrombosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes treated with percutaneous coronary intervention and stenting in the TRITONTIMI 38 trial: a subanalysis of a randomised trial. Lancet. 2008;371(9621):1353-63.
102. Murphy SA, Antman EM, Wiviott SD, et al. Reduction in recurrent cardiovascular events with prasugrel compared with clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes from the TRITON- TIMI 38 trial. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(20):2473-9.
103. Mega JL, Close SL, Wiviott SD, et al. Cytochrome P450 genetic polymorphisms and the response to prasugrel: relationship to pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and clinical outcomes. Circulation. 2009;119:2553-60.
104. Varenhorst C, James S, Erlinge D, et al. Genetic variation of CYP2C19 affects both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic responses to clopidogrel but not prasugrel in aspirin-treated patients with coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J. 2009;30: 1744-52.
105. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(11):1045-57.
106. Ticagrelor [package insert]. London, UK: AstraZeneca. Available at: www.brillinta.com. Accessed 31 Jan2012.
107. Diener HC, Bogousslavsky J, Brass LM, et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364(9431):331-7.
108. Effects of platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockade with tirofi ban on adverse cardiac events in patients with unstable angina or acute myocardial infarction undergoing coronary angioplasty. The RESTORE Investigators. Randomized Efficacy Study of Tirofi ban for Outcomes and Restenosis. Circulation. 1997;96(5):1445-53.
109. Platelet Receptor Inhibition in Ischemic Syndrome Management (PRISM) Study Investigators. A comparison of aspirin plus tirofi -ban with aspirin plus heparin for unstable angina. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(21):1498-505.
110. Lincoff AM, Califf RM, Anderson KM, et al. Evidence for prevention of death and myocardial infarction with platelet membrane glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade by abciximab (c7E3 Fab) among patients with unstable angina undergoing percutaneous coronary revascularization. EPIC Investigators. Evaluation of 7E3 in preventing ischemic complications. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30(1):149-56.
111. Boersma E, Harrington RA, Moliterno DJ, et al. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors in acute coronary syndromes: a metaanalysis of all major randomised clinical trials. Lancet. 2002;359(9302):189-98.
112. Kastrati A, Mehilli J, Neumann FJ, et al. Abciximab in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention after clopidogrel pretreatment: the ISARREACT 2 randomized trial. JAMA. 2006;295(13):1531-8.
113. Hamm CW, Heeschen C, Goldmann B, et al. c7E3 Fab Antiplatelet Therapy in Unstable Refractory Angina (CAPTURE) Study Investigators. Benefi t of abciximab in patients with refractory unstable angina in relation to serum troponin T levels. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(21):1623-9.
114. Heeschen C, Hamm CW, Goldmann B, PRISM Study Investigators. Troponin concentrations for stratifi cation of patients with acute coronary syndromes in relation to therapeutic efficacy of tirofi ban. Lancet. 1999;354(9192):1757-62.
115. Th?roux P, Alexander Jr J, Pharand C, et al. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade improves outcomes in diabetic patients presenting with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction: results from the platelet receptor inhibition in ischemic syndrome management in patients limited by unstable signs and symptoms (PRISM-PLUS) study. Circulation. 2000;102(20): 2466-72.
116. Klootwijk P, Meij S, Melkert R, et al. Reduction of recurrent ischemia with abciximab during continuous ECG-ischemia monitoring in patients with unstable angina refractory to standard treatment (CAPTURE). Circulation. 1998;98(14):1358-64.
117. Morrow DA, Antman EM, Snapinn SM, et al. An integrated clinical approach to predicting the benefi t of tirofi ban in non-ST elevation acute coronary syndromes: application of the TIMI risk score for UA/NSTEMI in PRISM-PLUS. Eur Heart J. 2002;23(3): 223-9.
118. Giugliano RP, White JA, Bode C, et al. Early versus delayed, provisional eptifi batide in acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:2176-90.
119. Stone GW, Bertrand ME, Moses JW, et al. Routine upstream initiation vs deferred selective use of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors in acute coronary syndromes: the ACUITY timing trial. JAMA. 2007;297:591-602.
120. Mehta SR, Cannon CP, Fox KA, et al. Routine vs selective invasive strategies in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA. 2005; 293(23):2908-17.
121. Bavry AA, Kumbhani DJ, Rassi AN, et al. Benefi t of early invasive therapy in acute coronary syndromes: a meta-analysis of contemporary randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 48(7):1319-25.
122. Hoenig MR, Doust JA, Aroney CN, Scott IA. Early invasive versus conservative strategies for unstable angina & non-ST- elevation myocardial infarction in the stent era. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3, CD004815.
123. Fibrinolytic Therapy Trialists? (FTT) Collaborative Group. Indications for fi brinolytic therapy in suspected acute myocardial infarction: collaborative overview of early mortality and major morbidity results from all randomised trials of more than 1000 patients. Lancet. 1994;343(8893):311-22.
124. Chesebro JH, Knatterud G, Roberts R, et al. Thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) trial, phase I: a comparison between intravenous tissue plasminogen activator and intravenous streptokinase: clinical fi ndings through hospital discharge. Circulation. 1987;76(1):142-54.
125. Investigators GUSTO. An international randomized trial comparing four thrombolytic strategies for acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(10):673-82.
126. Assessment of the Safety and Efficacy of a New Thrombolytic (ASSENT-2) Investigators. Single-bolus tenecteplase compared with front-loaded alteplase in acute myocardial infarction: the ASSENT-2 double-blind randomised trial. Lancet. 1999; 354(9180):716-22.
127. Keeley EC, Boura JA, Grines CL. Primary angioplasty versus intra- venous thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: a quantitative review of 23 randomised trials. Lancet. 2003; 361(9351):13-20.
128. Cannon CP, Gibson CM, Lambrew CT, et al. Relationship of symptom-onset-to-balloon time and door-to-balloon time with mortality in patients undergoing angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2000;283(22):2941-7.
129. ASSENT-4 PCI investigators. Primary versus tenecteplasefacilitated percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction (ASSENT-4 PCI): randomised trial. Lancet. 2006;367(9510):569-758.
130. Ellis SG, Armstrong P, Betriu A, et al. Facilitated percutaneous coronary intervention versus primary percutaneous coronary intervention: design and rationale of the facilitated intervention with enhanced reperfusion speed to stop events (FINESSE) trial. Am Heart J. 2004;147(4):E16.
131. Wijeysundera HC, Vijayaraghavan R, Nallamothu BK, et al. Rescue angioplasty or repeat fi brinolysis after failed fi brinolytic therapy for ST-segment myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:422-30.
132. Di Mario C, Dudek D, Piscione F, et al. Immediate angioplasty versus standard therapy with rescue angioplasty after thrombolysis in the combined abciximab reteplase stent study in acute myocardial infarction (CARESS-in-AMI): an open, prospective, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2008;371:559-68.
133. Cantor WJ, Fitchett D, Borgundvaag B, et al. Routine early angioplasty after fi brinolysis for acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:2705-18.
134. Cabello JB, Burls A, Emparanza JI, et al. Oxygen therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010; (6):CD007160.
135. Moradkhan R, Sinoway LI. Revisiting the role of oxygen therapy in cardiac patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(13):1013-6.
136. Chen ZM, Pan HC, Chen YP, et al. Early intravenous then oral metoprolol in 45,852 patients with acute myocardial infarction: randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;366(9497): 1622-32.
137. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, et al. Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001;285(13):1711-8.
138. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Pravastatin or atorvastatin evaluation and infection therapy-thrombolysis in myocardial infarction 22 investigators. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(15): 1495-504.