Stereotype Threat and Racial Differences in Citizens' Experiences of Police Encounters

Law and Human Behavior

Volumn 39, Issue 5, 2015, Pages 463-477

  Najdowski, Cynthia J ^a   Bottoms, Bette L ^b   Goff, Phillip Atiba ^c  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

nonverbal behavior; police; race; racial profiling; stereotype threat

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BLACK PERSON; CAUCASIAN; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; POLICE; RACISM; STEREOTYPING; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; POLICE; RACISM; STEREOTYPING; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84941745194     PISSN: 01477307     EISSN: 1573661X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/lhb0000140     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87 .1.49
2. Akehurst, L., Köhnken, G., Vrij, A., Bull, R. (1996). Lay persons' and police officers' beliefs regarding deceptive behaviour. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 461-471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199612)10:6-461::AID-ACP413-3.0.CO;2-2
3. Apfelbaum, E. P., Sommers, S. R., Norton, M. I. (2008). Seeing race and seeming racist? Evaluating strategic colorblindness in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 918-932. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0011990
4. Arbuckle, J. L. (2009). AMOS (Version 18) [Computer Software]. Chicago, IL: Small Waters.
5. Archer, R. L., Foushee, H. C., Davis, M. H., Aderman, D. (1979). Emotional empathy in a courtroom simulation: A person-situation interaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, 275-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1979.tb02711.x
6. Ayton, P., Pott, A., Elwakili, N. (2007). Affective forecasting. Why can't people predict their emotions. Thinking & Reasoning, 13, 62-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546780600872726
7. Beilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., Carr, T. H. (2006). On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: Can skills that don't rely heavily on working memory still be threatened? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1059-1071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167206288489
8. Beilock, S. L., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R. (2007). Stereotype threat and working memory: Mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 256-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.256
9. Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00340
10. Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L., Pinel, E. C. (2004). When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 247-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00099-4
11. Carlson, D. K. (2004, July 20). Racial profiling seen as pervasive, unjust. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/12406/Racial-Profiling-Seen-Pervasive-Unjust.aspx
12. Cheryan, S., Monin, B. (2005). "Where are you really from?": Asian Americans and identity denial. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 717-730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.717
13. Cook, J. E., Arrow, H., Malle, B. F. (2011). The effect of feeling stereotyped on social power and inhibition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 165-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167210390389
14. Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., Wittenbrink, B. (2002). The police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1314-1329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314
15. Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., Wittenbrink, B. (2007). The influence of stereotypes on decisions to shoot. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1102-1117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.450
16. Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., Wittenbrink, B., Sadler, M. S., Keesee, T. (2007). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1006-1023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1006
17. Correll, J., Urland, G. R., Ito, T. A. (2006). Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: The role of threat perception and cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.006
18. Cotner, C., Burkley, M. (2013). Queer eye for the straight guy: Sexual orientation and stereotype lift effects on performance in the fashion domain. Journal of Homosexuality, 60, 1336-1348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013.806183
19. Davis, D., Leo, R. A. (2012). Interrogation-related regulatory decline: Ego depletion, failures of self-regulation, and the decision to confess. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18, 673-704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027367
20. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
21. Devine, P. G., Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139-1150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01461672952111002
22. Duncan, B. L. (1976). Differential social perception and attribution of intergroup violence: Testing the lower limits of sterotyping of blacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 590-598. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.4.590
23. Duru, N. J. (2004). The Central Park Five, the Scottsboro Boys, and the myth of the bestial Black man. Cardozo Law Review, 25, 1315-1366.
24. Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., Davies, P. G. (2004). Seeing black: Race, crime, and visual processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 876-893.
25. Epley, N., Dunning, D. (2006). The mixed blessings of self-knowledge in behavioral prediction: Enhanced discrimination but exacerbated bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 641-655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167205284007
26. Fagan, J., Tyler, T. R. (2005). Legal socialization of children and adolescents. Social Justice Research, 18, 217-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-6823-3
27. Fishbein, M., Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
28. Floyd v. City of New York, 08 Civ. 2274 (SAS), U.S. Dist. LEXIS 113205, (S. D. N. Y., August 12, 2013).
29. Goff, P. A., Steele, C. M., Davies, P. G. (2008). The space between us: Stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 91-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.91
30. Goff, P. A., Thomas, M. A., Jackson, M. C. (2008). "Ain't I a woman?": Towards an intersectional approach to person perception and groupbased harms. Sex Roles, 59, 392-403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9505-4
31. Graham, S., Lowery, B. S. (2004). Priming unconscious racial stereotypes about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 483-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000046430.65485.1f
32. Gregersen, T. S. (2005). Nonverbal cues: Clues to the detection of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, 38, 388-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2005.tb02225.x
33. Hackney, A. A., Glaser, J. (2013). Reverse deterrence in racial profiling: Increased transgressions by nonprofiled whites. Law and Human Behavior, 37, 348-353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000038
34. Haegerich, T. M., Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 421-448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294
35. Hagan, J., Albonetti, C. (1982). Race, class, and the perception of criminal injustice in America. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 329-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/227674
36. Hagan, J., Shedd, C., Payne, M. R. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and youth perceptions of criminal injustice. American Sociological Review, 70, 381-407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000302
37. Harrigan, J. A., O'Connell, D. M. (1996). How do you look when feeling anxious? Facial displays of anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 205-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00050-5
38. Hilton, J. L., Darley, J. M. (1985). Constructing other persons: A limit on the effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(85)90002-2
39. Hurwitz, J., Peffley, M. (1997). Public perceptions of race and crime: The role of racial stereotypes. American Journal of Political Science, 41, 375-401. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2111769
40. Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as ego depletion: How being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychological Science, 17, 262-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006 .01695.x
41. Inzlicht, M., Tullett, A. M., Legault, L., Kang, S. K. (2011). Lingering effects: Stereotype threat hurts more than you think. Social Issues and Policy Review, 5, 227-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011 .01031.x
42. Kang, J. E., Lindell, M. K., Prater, C. S. (2007). Hurricane evacuation expectations and actual behavior in Hurricane Lili. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 887-903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816 .2007.00191.x
43. Krueger, J. (1996). Personal beliefs and cultural stereotypes about racial characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 536-548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.536
44. Laurin, R. (2013). Stereotype threat and lift effects in motor task performance: The mediating role of somatic and cognitive anxiety. The Journal of Social Psychology, 153, 687-699. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2013.821098
45. Lehman, B. J., Conley, K. M. (2010). Momentary reports of socialevaluative threat predict ambulatory blood pressure. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 1, 51-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550609354924
46. Ludwig, J. (2003, May 13). Americans see racial profiling as widespread. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/8389/Americans-See-Racial-Profiling-Widespread.aspx
47. Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith, A., Palumbo, P., & Jussim, L. (2001). Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 996-1010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278007
48. Major, B., O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393-421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137
49. Mann, S., Vrij, A. (2006). Police officers' judgements of veracity, tenseness, cognitive load and attempted behavioural control in real-life police interviews. Psychology, Crime & Law, 12, 307-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10683160600558444
50. Mann, S., Vrij, A., Bull, R. (2004). Detecting true lies: Police officers' ability to detect suspects' lies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 137-149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.137
51. Marx, D. M., Goff, P. A. (2005). Clearing the air: The effect of experimenter race on target's test performance and subjective experience. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 645-657. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466604X17948
52. Marx, D. M., Stapel, D. A., Muller, D. (2005). We can do it: The interplay of construal orientation and social comparisons under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 432-446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.432
53. Mendes, W. B., Blascovich, J., Lickel, B., Hunter, S. (2002). Challenge and threat during social interactions with White and Black men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 939-952. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01467202028007007
54. Mendes, W. B., Major, B., McCoy, S., Blascovich, J. (2008). How attributional ambiguity shapes physiological and emotional responses to social rejection and acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 278-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.278
55. Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V. J., Davis, A., Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students' college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 896-918. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83 .4.896
56. Miller, C. T., Myers, A. M. (1998). Compensating for prejudice: How heavyweight people (and others) control outcomes despite prejudice. In J. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 191-218). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012679130-3/50044-2
57. Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., Gross, J. J. (2007). Signaling threat: How situational cues affect women in math, science, and engineering settings. Psychological Science, 18, 879-885. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01995.x
58. Najdowski, C. J. (2011). Stereotype threat in criminal interrogations: Why innocent Black suspects are at risk for confessing falsely. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17, 562-591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023741
59. Najdowski, C. J. (2014). Interactions between African Americans and police officers: How cultural stereotypes create a wrongful conviction pipeline for African Americans. In J. R. Acker & A. D. Redlich (Eds.), Examining wrongful convictions: Stepping back, moving forward (pp. 55-70). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
60. Navarrete, C. D., McDonald, M. M., Molina, L. E., Sidanius, J. (2010). Prejudice at the nexus of race and gender: An outgroup male target hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 933-945. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017931
61. New York Civil Liberties Union. (2013). NYPD stop-and-frisk activity in 2012. Retrieved from http://www.nyclu.org/files/publications/2012-Report-NYCLU-0.pdf
62. Oliver, M. B. (2003). African American men as "criminal and dangerous": Implications of media portrayals of crime on the "criminalization" of African American men. Journal of African American Studies, 7, 3-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12111-003-1006-5
63. Payne, B. K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.181
64. Plant, E. A., Goplen, J., Kunstman, J. W. (2011). Selective responses to threat: The roles of race and gender in decisions to shoot. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1274-1281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167211408617
65. Purdie-Vaughns, V., Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59, 377-391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4
66. Quillian, L., Pager, D. (2001). Black neighbors, higher crime? The role of racial stereotypes in evaluations of neighborhood crime. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 717-767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/338938
67. Reaves, B. A. (2010). Local Police Departments, 2007. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
68. Richeson, J. A., Shelton, J. N. (2007). Negotiating interracial interactions: Costs, consequences, and possibilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 316-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00528.x
69. Richeson, J. A., Shelton, J. N. (2012). Stereotype threat in interracial interactions. In M. Inzlich & T. Schmader (Eds.), Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application (pp. 231-245). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
70. Rome, D. (2004). Black demons: The media's depiction of the African American male criminal stereotype. Westport, CT: Praeger.
71. Schmader, T., Johns, M., Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115, 336-356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
72. Shelton, J. N. (2003). Interpersonal concerns in social encounters between majority and minority group members. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 6, 171-185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430203006002003
73. Sheppard, B., Hartwick, J., Warshaw, P. (1988). The theory of reasoned action: A meta-analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 325-343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/209170
74. Shrout, P. E., Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4 .422
75. Sidanius, J., Veniegas, R. C. (2000). Gender and race discrimination: The interactive nature of disadvantage. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology (pp. 47-69). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
76. Sigelman, L., Tuch, S. A. (1997). Metastereotypes: Blacks' perceptions of Whites' stereotypes of Blacks. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61, 87-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/297788
77. Skogan, W. G., Hartnett, S. M. (1997). Community policing: Chicago style. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
78. Smith, D. M., Neuberg, S. L., Judice, T. N., Biesanz, J. C. (1997). Target complicity in the confirmation and disconfirmation of erroneous perceiver expectations: Immediate and longer-term implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 974-991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.974
79. Staples, B. (2007). Just walk on by: A black man ponders his power to alter public space. In J. F. Healey & E. T. O'Brien (Eds.), Race, ethnicity, and gender: Selected readings (pp. 186-189). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
80. Steele, C. M. (2010). Whistling Vivaldi and other clues to how stereotypes affect us. New York, NY: Norton.
81. Steele, C. M., Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514 .69.5.797
82. Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 379-440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80009-0
83. Strömwall, L. A., Granhag, P. A. (2003). How to detect deception? Arresting the beliefs of police officers, prosecutors and judges. Psychology, Crime & Law, 9, 19-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10683160308138
84. Stroshine, M., Alpert, G., Dunham, R. (2008). The influence of "working rules" on police suspicion and discretionary decision making. Police Quarterly, 11, 315-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611107313029
85. Taylor, A. B., MacKinnon, D. P., Tein, J.-Y. (2008). Tests of the three-path mediated effect. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 241-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1094428107300344
86. Thomas, E. L., Dovidio, J. F., West, T. V. (2014). Lost in the categorical shuffle: Evidence for the social non-prototypicality of black women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 370-376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035096
87. Timberlake, J. M., Estes, S. B. (2007). Do racial and ethnic stereotypes depend on the sex of target group members? Evidence from a surveybased experiment. The Sociological Quarterly, 48, 399-433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00083.x
88. Vorauer, J. D., Turpie, C. A. (2004). Disruptive effects of vigilance on dominant group members' treatment of outgroup members: Choking versus shining under pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 384-399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.384
89. Vrij, A., Akehurst, L., Knight, S. (2006). Police officers', social workers', teachers' and the general public's beliefs about deception in children, adolescents and adults. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 297-312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/135532505X60816
90. Vrij, A., Mann, S. A. (2001). Who killed my relative? Police officers' ability to detect real-life high-stake lies. Psychology, Crime & Law, 7, 119-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10683160108401791
91. Vrij, A., Semin, G. R. (1996). Lie experts' beliefs about nonverbal indicators of deception. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20, 65-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02248715
92. Vrij, A., Taylor, R. (2003). Police officers' and students' beliefs about telling and detecting trivial and serious lies. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 5, 41-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/ijps .5.1.41.11244
93. Vrij, A., Winkel, F. W. (1992). Social skills, distorted perception, and being suspect: Studies in impression formation and the ability to deceive. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 8, 2-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02806606
94. Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L. (2003). Stereotype lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 456-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00019-2
95. Waxer, P. H. (1977). Nonverbal cues for anxiety: An examination of emotional leakage. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 306-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.86.3.306
96. Welch, K. (2007). Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 23, 276-288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986207306870