The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test: Investigation of Psychometric Properties and Test–Retest Reliability of the Persian Version

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Volumn 45, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 2651-2666

  Khorashad, Behzad S ^a   Baron Cohen, Simon ^b   Roshan, Ghasem M ^a   Kazemian, Mojtaba ^a   Khazai, Ladan ^c   Aghili, Zahra ^a   Talaei, Ali ^a   Afkhamizadeh, Mozhgan ^d  

^a MASHHAD UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

^d MASHHAD UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

Author keywords

Empathy; Persian; Reading the Mind in the Eyes test; Reliability; Sex differences; Theory of mind

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; INTERNAL CONSISTENCY; MALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOMETRY; READING THE MIND IN THE EYES TEST PERSIAN VERSION; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL RECOGNITION TEST; TEST RETEST RELIABILITY; THEORY OF MIND; AGE; CULTURAL FACTOR; EMPATHY; IRAN; PSYCHOLOGIC TEST; REPRODUCIBILITY; STANDARDS;

ADULT; AGE FACTORS; CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON; EMPATHY; FEMALE; HUMANS; IRAN; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; SEX FACTORS; THEORY OF MIND;

EID: 84941419037     PISSN: 01623257     EISSN: 15733432     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2427-4     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. Adams, R. B., Jr., Rule, N. O., Franklin, R. G., Jr., Wang, E., Stevenson, M. T., Yoshikawa, S., et al. (2010). Cross-cultural reading the mind in the eyes: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,22(1), 97–108. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21187.
2. Ahmed, F. S., & Stephen, M. L. (2011). Executive function mechanisms of theory of mind. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41(5), 667–678. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1087-7.
3. Apperly, I. A., Riggs, K. J., Simpson, A., Chiavarino, C., & Samson, D. (2006). Psychological Science,17, 841.
4. Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., et al. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behavior in girls and in boys. Psychological Science,20(2), 144–148. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02279.x.
5. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
6. Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Empathizing, systemizing, and the extreme male brain theory of autism. Progress in Brain Research,186, 167–175.
7. Baron-Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., & Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: Evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,38, 813–822.
8. Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences,358, 361–374.
9. Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,34, 163–175.
10. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001a). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,42, 241–251.
11. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001b). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,31, 5.
12. Begeer, S., Malle, B. F., Nieuwland, M. S., & Keysar, B. (2010). Using Theory of Mind to represent and take part in social interactions: Comparing individuals with high-functioning autism and typically developing controls. European Journal of Developmental Psychology,7, 104–122.
13. Bender, L. C., Linnau, K. F., Meier, E. N., Anzai, Y., & Gunn, M. L. (2012). Interrater agreement in the evaluation of discrepant imaging findings with the Radpeer system. AJR: American Journal of Roentgenology,199, 1320–1327.
14. Billington, J., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2007). Cognitive style predicts entry into physical sciences and humanities: Questionnaire and performance tests of empathy and systemizing. Learning and Individual Differences,17, 260–268.
15. Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (1986). Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet,1, 307–310.
16. Chapman, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Knickmeyer, R. F., Taylor, K. F., & Hackett, G. (2006). Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the empathy quotient (EQ) and the “reading the mind in the eyes” test. Social Neuroscience,1(2), 135–148.
17. Dehning, S., Gasperi, S., Tesfaye, M., Girma, E., Meyer, S., Krahl, W., et al. (2013). Empathy without borders? Cross-cultural heart and mind-reading in first-year medical students. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences,23, 113–122.
18. Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Michel, A., Berger, C., & Herpertz, S. C. (2007). Oxytocin improves “mind-reading” in humans. Biological Psychiatry,61(6), 731–733.
19. Fernandez-Abascal, E. G., Cabello, R., Fernandez-Berrocal, P., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2013). Test-retest reliability of the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test: A one-year follow-up study. Molecular Autism,4, 33.
20. Focquaert, F., Steven, Megan S., Wolford, George L., Colden, Albina, Miller, L. S., & Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2007). Emphatizing and systemizing cognitive traits in the sciences and humanities. Personality and Individual Differences,43, 619–625.
21. Grove, R., Baillie, A., Allison, C., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hoekstra, R. A. (2014). The latent structure of cognitive and emotional empathy in individuals with autism, first-degree relatives and typical individuals. Molecular Autism,5(1), 42. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-5-42.
22. Guillemin, F., Bombardier, C., & Beaton, D. (1993). Cross-cultural adaptation of health-related quality of life measures: Literature review and proposed guidelines. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,46(12), 1417–1432.
23. Hallerback, M. U., Lugnegard, T., Hjarthag, F., & Gillberg, C. (2009). The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test: Test–retest reliability of a Swedish version. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry,14, 127–143.
24. Hampson, E., van Anders, S. M., & Mullin, L. I. (2006). A female advantage in the recognition of emotional facial expressions: Test of an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolution and Human Behavior,27(6), 401–416.
25. Harkness, K. L., Alavi, N., Monroe, S. M., Slavich, G. M., Gotlib, I. H., & Bagby, R. M. (2010). Gender differences in life events prior to onset of major depressive disorder: The moderating effect of age. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,119(4), 791–803. doi:10.1037/a0020629.
26. Hutchins, T. L., Bonazinga, L. A., Prelock, P. A., & Taylor, R. S. (2008). Beyond false beliefs: The development and psychometric evaluation of the perceptions of children’s theory of mind measure-experimental version (PCToMM-E). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38, 143–155.
27. Kelley, T. L. (1939). The selection of upper and lower groups for the validation of test items. Journal of Educational Psychology,30, 17–24.
28. Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2013). Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind. Science,342(6156), 377–380. doi:10.1126/science.1239918.
29. Kret, M. E., & De, G. B. (2012). A review on sex differences in processing emotional signals. Neuropsychologia,50(7), 1211–1221.
30. Kunihira, Y., Senju, A., Dairoku, H., Wakabayashi, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2006). ‘Autistic’ traits in non-autistic Japanese populations: Relationships with personality traits and cognitive ability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,36, 553–566.
31. Lai, M. C., Lombardo, M. V., Chakrabarti, B., Ecker, C. F., Sadek, S. A., Wheelwright, S., et al. (2012). Individual differences in brain structure underpin empathizing–systemizing cognitive styles in male adults. Neuroimage,61(4), 1347–1354.
32. Lind, S. E., Bowler, D. M., & Raber, J. (2014). Spatial navigation, episodic memory, episodic future thinking, and theory of mind in children with autism spectrum disorder: Evidence for impairments in mental simulation? Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1411. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01411.
33. Linda, C., & Algina, J. (2006). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
34. Mandal, M. K., & Palchoudhury, S. (1985). Responses to facial expression of emotion in depression. Psychological Reports,56(2), 653–654.
35. Manson, C., & Winterbottom, M. (2011). Examining the association between empathising, systemising, degree subject and gender. Educational Studies,38, 73–88.
36. Mason, M. F., & Morris, M. W. (2010). Culture, attribution and automaticity: A social cognitive neuroscience view. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,5(2–3), 292–306. doi:10.1093/scan/nsq034.
37. Nejati, V., Zabihzadeh, A., Maleki, G., & Tehranchi, A. (2012). Mind reading and mindfulness deficits in patients with major depression disorder. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences,32, 431–437.
38. Nowicki, S., Jr., & Hartigan, M. (1988). Accuracy of facial affect recognition as a function of locus of control orientation and anticipated interpersonal interaction. The Journal of Social Psychology,128(3), 363–372.
39. Pedersen, R. (2010). Empathy development in medical education—A critical review. Medical teacher,32(7), 593–600. doi:10.3109/01421590903544702.
40. Peterson, E., & Miller, S. F. (2012). The Eyes test as a measure of individual differences: How much of the variance reflects verbal IQ? Frontiers in Psychology,3, 220. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00220.
41. Peterson, C. C., Slaughter, V. P., & Paynter, J. (2007). Social maturity and theory of mind in typically developing children and those on the autism spectrum. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,48(12), 1243–1250.
42. Pfaltz, M. C., McAleese, S., Saladin, A., Meyer, A. H., Stoecklin, M., Opwis, K., et al. (2013). The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test: Test–retest reliability and preliminary psychometric properties of the German version. International Journal of Advances in Psychology (IJAP),2, 1–9.
43. Premack, D., Woodruff, G., & Kennel, K. (1978). Paper-marking test for chimpanzee: Simple control for social cues. Science,202(4370), 903–905.
44. Prevost, M., Carrier, M. E., Chowne, G., Zelkowitz, P., Joseph, L., & Gold, I. (2014). The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test: Validation of a French version and exploration of cultural variations in a multi-ethnic city. Cogn Neuropsychiatry,19, 189–204.
45. Rotter, N., & Rotter, G. (1988). Sex differences in the encoding and decoding of negative facial emotions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior,12, 139–148.
46. Samson, D. (2009). Reading other people’s mind: Insights from neuropsychology. Journal of Neuropsychology,3(1), 3–16. doi:10.1348/174866408X377883.
47. Sawada, R., Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Uono, S., Kubota, Y., Yoshimura, S., et al. (2014). Sex differences in the rapid detection of emotional facial expressions. PloS one,9(4), e94747. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094747.
48. Shahaeian, A., Peterson, C. C., Slaughter, V., & Wellman, H. M. (2011). Culture and the sequence of steps in theory of mind development. Developmental Psychology,47(5), 1239–1247. doi:10.1037/a0023899.
49. Vassallo, S., Cooper, S. L., & Douglas, J. M. (2009). Visual scanning in the recognition of facial affect: Is there an observer sex difference? Journal of Vision,9(3), 11.1–11.10. doi:10.1167/9.3.11.
50. Vellante, M., Baron-Cohen, S., Melis, M., Marrone, M., Petretto, D. R., Masala, C., et al. (2013). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test: Systematic review of psychometric properties and a validation study in Italy. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry,18, 326–354.
51. Voracek, M., & Dressler, S. G. (2006). Lack of correlation between digit ratio (2D:4D) and Baron-CohenΓÇÖs ΓÇ£Reading the Mind in the EyesΓÇ¥ test, empathy, systemising, and autism-spectrum quotients in a general population sample. Personality and Individual Differences,41, 1481–1491.
52. Wagner, H. N., Jr., (1986). Images of the brain: Past as prologue. Society of Nuclear Medicine,27(12), 1929–1937.
53. Wheelwright, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Goldenfeld, N., Delaney, J., Fine, D., Smith, R., et al. (2006). Predicting Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) from the Systemizing Quotient-Revised (SQ-R) and Empathy Quotient (EQ). Brain Research,1079, 47–56.
54. Woolley, A. W., Chabris, C. F., Pentland, A., Hashmi, N., & Malone, T. W. (2010). Evidence for a collective intelligence factor in the performance of human groups. Science,330(6004), 686–688. doi:10.1126/science.1193147.
55. Yildirim, E. A., Kasar, M., Guduk, M., Ates, E., Kucukparlak, I., & Ozalmete, E. O. (2011). Investigation of the reliability of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes test” in a Turkish population. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi,22, 177–186.
56. Zainudin, S., Ahmad, K., Ali, N. M., & Zainal, N. F. A. (2012). Determining course outcomes achievement through examination difficulty index measurement. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences,59, 270–276.