John Tyndall and the Early History of Diamagnetism

Annals of Science

Volumn 72, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 435-489

  Jackson, Roland ^a,b  

^a DAVY FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIAMAGNETISM; MAGNETIC POLARITY; PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS;

ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION; FIELD THEORY; MAGNETIC FORCE; ROYAL SOCIETY; THOMSON; TYNDALL;

BIOGRAPHIES;

AWARDS AND PRIZES; CHEMISTRY; GERMANY; HISTORY; MAGNET; MAGNETIC FIELD; MAGNETISM; PROCEDURES; UNITED KINGDOM;

AWARDS AND PRIZES; GERMANY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; MAGNETIC FIELDS; MAGNETICS; MAGNETS; UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 84938971440     PISSN: 00033790     EISSN: 1464505X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00033790.2014.929743     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. U. DeYoung, A Vision of Modern Science; John Tyndall and the Role of the Scientists in Victorian Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 28
2. A. S. Eve, and C. H. Creasey, Life and Work of John Tyndall, 290-7 (London: Macmillan, 1945)
3. W. H. Brock, N. D. McMillan and R. C. Mollan, John Tyndall; Essays on a Natural Philosopher, 82-6 (Dublin: Royal Dublin Society, 1981).
4. M. Faraday, 'On new magnetic actions, and on the magnetic condition of all matter', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1846), 136, 21-62
5. F. A .J. L James, Michael Faraday: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: OUP, 2010), 76-82.
6. F. A. J. L. James The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, Volume 3, 1841-1848 (London, 1996)
7. M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity (London, 1855), vol. III, 82.
8. M. Faraday, 'On the magnetisation of light and the illumination of magnetic lines of force', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1846), 136, 1-20 (§2149).
9. W. Thomson, 'On the forces experienced by small spheres under magnetic influence; and on some of the phenomena presented by diamagnetic substances', Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal (May 1847).
10. Reprint of papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism (London, 1884), 2nd ed., 499-505.
11. M. V. Berry and A. K. Geim, 'Of flying frogs and levitrons', European Journal of Physics (1997), 18, 307-13.
12. M. Faraday, 'On the magnetic and diamagnetic condition of bodies', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1851), 141, 7-28 (§2790).
13. W. Gregory, Letter to a Candid Admirer, on Animal Magnetism (Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1850).
14. M. Faraday, 'On the diamagnetic conditions of flame and gases', Philosophical Magazine (1847), 401-21.
15. M. Faraday, 'On Magnetic Hypotheses', Proceedings of the Royal Insitution of Great Britain (1854), 1, 457-9.
16. M. Faraday, 'On some points of magnetic philosophy', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 9, 81-113 (§3309).
17. M. Faraday, Faraday's Diary (1934), vol. 5, paragraph 9196.
18. J. Plücker, 'Über die Abstossung der optischen Axen der Krystalle durch die Pole der Magnete', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1847), 72, 315-43
19. J. Plücker, 'Über das Verhältnis zwischen Magnetismus und Diamagnetismus', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1847), 72, 343-52.
20. J. Tyndall, 'On the Nature of the Force by Which Bodies Are Repelled from the Poles of a Magnet; to Which is Prefixed, an Account of Some Experiments on Molecular Influences', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1855), 145, 1-51.
21. C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual Mastery of Nature, Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein Vol. 1, The Torch of Mathematics 1800-1870 (Chicago: University of Chicago University Press, 1986), 234-8.
22. W. Weber, 'Über die Erregung und Wirkung des Diamagnetismus nach den Gesetzes der inducierten Ströme', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1848), 73, 242-56.
23. F. Reich, 'On the repulsive action of the pole of a magnet upon non-magnetic bodies', Philosophical Magazine (1849), 34, 127-30
24. W. Weber, 'On the excitation and action of diamagnetism according to the laws of induced currents', Taylor's Scientific Memoirs (1859), vol. 5, 477-88).
25. J. C. Poggendorff, 'Ueber die diamagnetische Polarität', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1848), 73, 475-9).
26. J. Plücker, 'Über ein einfaches Mittel, den Diamagnetismus schwindiger Körper zu verstärken. Diamagnetische Polarität', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1848), 73, 613-8.
27. G. Boato and N. Moro, 'Bancalari's role in Faraday's discovery of diamagnetism and the successive progress in the understanding of magnetic properties of matter', Annals of Science (1994), 51, 391-412.
28. Johann Poggendorff (1796-1877) was a physicist at the University of Berlin who edited Annalen der Physik und Chemie for more than half a century. He was an excellent experimenter, concentrating on electrical phenomena (DSB 1981).
29. W. Thomson, 'On the theory of magnetic induction in crystalline and non-crystalline substances', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London, 1850), 23.
30. J. Plücker, 'On Diamagnetism', Philosophical Magazine (1848), 33, 48-9.
31. J. Plücker, 'On some new relations of the diamagnetic force', British Association Report (London: Murray, 1848) Part 2, 2;
32. M. Faraday, 'On the crystalline polarity of bismuth and other bodies, and on its relation to the magnetic form of force', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1849), 139, 1-41.
33. F. A. J. L. James, The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, Volume 4 1849-1855 (London: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1999).
34. J. Plücker, 'On the magnetic relations of the positive and negative optic axes of crystals', Philosophical Magazine (1849), 34, 450-2.
35. D. Gooding, 'A convergence of opinion on the divergence of lines: Faraday and Thomson's discussion of diamagnetism', Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London (1982), 36, 243-59.
36. D. Gooding, 'Final steps of field theory: Faraday's study of magnetic phenomena, 1845-1850', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences (1981), 11, 231-75.
37. Although according to his first paper they had started 'early in the month of November' (J. Tyndall, Journal, 28 November 1848, RI MS JT/2/13; hereafter Tyndall Journal entries are referenced 'Tyndall, Journal, date'). Herman Knoblauch (1820-1895) moved to the University of Halle in 1853 where he remained for the rest of his career, and kept in touch with Tyndall over many years.
38. F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53.
39. Edward Frankland (1825-1899) was a chemist and early friend of Tyndall. He discovered organometallic chemistry, publishing an important paper on the subject in May 1852, and made major contributions to the development of valance theory and the chemical bond. He was elected FRS in 1853.
40. J. Tyndall and H. Knoblauch, 'On the deportment of crystalline bodies between the poles of a magnet', Philosophical Magazine (1850), 36, 178-83.
41. M. Faraday, 'On the polar or other condition of diamagnetic bodies', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1850), 140, 171-88.
42. Thomas Hirst (1830-1892) was a mathematician and friend of Tyndall since their days surveying the railways in northern England in 1845. He was elected FRS in 1861.
43. Tyndall published the six main papers and supplementary material as Researches on Diamagnetism and Magnecrystallic Action (London: Longmans, 1870).
44. J. Tyndall and H. Knoblauch, 'On the magneto-optic properties of crystals, and the relation of magnetism and diamagnetism to molecular arrangement', Philosophical Magazine (1850), 37, 1-33.
45. J. Plücker and A. Beer, 'Ueber die magnetischen Axen der Krystalle und ihre Beziehung zur Krystallform und zu den optischen Axen', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1850), 81, 115-62.
46. J. Plücker and A. Beer, 'On the magnetic axes of crystals, and their relation to crystalline form and to the optic', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 1, 447-57.
47. Since they only wrote two together, and Tyndall's next paper was published after this one of Plücker and Beer, this is somewhat confusing.
48. David Brewster (1781-1868), devout evangelical Presbyterian, concentrated on the study of optics and was an adherent of the emission theory of light. He was an editor of magazines and a prolific writer, and one of the founders of the British Association (DNB).
49. James Forbes (1809-1868) was Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh from 1833 and Principal of St Andrews from 1860. He discovered the polarisation of radiant heat and, from 1840, carried out extensive work on the structure and motion of glaciers, a topic on which he later clashed substantially with Tyndall.
50. J. Tyndall, 'On the Magneto-Optical Properties of Crystals', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1850), 23.
51. John Wrottesley (1798-1867), landowner and astronomer, became President of the Royal Society in 1854.
52. George Stokes (1819-1903), mathematician, was Lucasian Professor at Cambridge and is particularly known for his work on hydrodynamics. He was a Secretary of the Royal Society from 1854 until he became President in 1885. Like his friend William Thomson, and unlike Tyndall, he was devoutly religious.
53. W. Thomson, 'On the theory of magnetic induction in crystalline and non-crystalline substances', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 1, 177-86.
54. J. Tyndall, 'Phœnomena of a water-jet', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 1, 105-11.
55. W. H. Brock and A. J Meadows, The Lamp of Learning; Taylor & Francis and the Development of Science Publishing (London: Taylor & Francis, 1984).
56. J. Tyndall, 'Reports on the progress of the physical sciences' Philosophical Magazine (1851) 2, 26-36
57. F. C. O. von Feilitzsch, 'On the physical distinction of magnetic and diamagnetic bodies', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 1, 46-51.
58. J. Tyndall, 'On the laws of magnetism', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 1, 265-95.
59. Heinrich Dove (1803-1879), meteorologist and physicist, was Director of the Prussian Institute of Meteorology from its founding in 1849, and professor at the University of Berlin (DSB). He received the Copley Medal in 1853, the year in which Tyndall declined his Royal Medal.
60. Edmond Becquerel (1820-1891), physicist, devoted most of his attention between 1845 and 1855 to the investigation of diamagnetism (DSB).
61. E. Becquerel, 'De l'action du magnetisme sur tous les corps', Annales de Chimie et de Physique (1851), 32, 68-112.
62. Annales de Chimie et de Physique (1849) 28, 283
63. Others were Sydney and Galway.
64. J. Tyndall, 'On Diamagnetism and Magnecrystallic Action', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1851), 15-8.
65. J. Tyndall, 'On diamagnetism and magnecrystallic action', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 2, 165-88.
66. J. Tyndall, 'On Air-bubbles formed in Water', British Association Report, Transactions of the Sections (London: Murray, 1851), 26-7)
67. J. Tyndall, Experiment in thermo-electricity with the monothermic pile invented by Prof. Magnus of Berlin, British Association Report, Transactions of the Sections (London: Murray, 1851), 18-9.
68. J. Tyndall, 'On the polarity of bismuth, including an examination of the magnetic field', Philosophical Magazine (1851), 2, 333-44.
69. M. Faraday, 'On lines of magnetic force; their definite character; and their distribution within a magnet and through space', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1852), 142, 25-56.
70. J. Tyndall, 'On the reduction of temperatures by electricity', Philosophical Magazine (1852), 4, 412-23
71. R. Adie, 'On the unequal heating effect of a galvanic current while entering and emerging from a conductor', Philosophical Magazine (1852), 4, 224-5
72. R. Adie, 'On the relation of magnetism and diamagnetism to the colour of bodies', Philosophical Magazine (1852), 4, 451-2
73. J. Tyndall, 'On the temperatures of conductors of electrical currents', Philosophical Magazine (1853), 5, 147).
74. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004
75. M. Faraday, 'On lines of magnetic force; their definite character; and their distribution within a magnet and through space', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1852), 142, 25-56.
76. It was formally received at the Royal Society on 20 October 1852.
77. The only original manuscript with the Royal Society is that of the final published paper (RS PT/46/6).
78. Possibly Charles Brooke (1804-1879), surgeon, who later seconded Tyndall's nomination for the Royal Medal.
79. William Hopkins (1793-1866), mathematician and geologist, elected FRS in 1837, was an important figure in Cambridge, particularly in the education of mathematicians such as Thomson and Stokes. He would later have much interaction with Tyndall on the subject of glaciers.
80. J. Tyndall, 'On Molecular Influences. Part I. Transmission of Heat through Organic Structures', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1853), 143, 217-31.
81. William Miller (1801-1880), professor of mineralogy at the University of Cambridge, and Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society 1856-1873.
82. W. Thomson, 'On certain magnetic curves; with applications to problems in the theories of heat, electricity and fluid motion', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1852), 18.
83. J. Tyndall, 'On molecular action', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1852), 20.
84. J. Tyndall, 'On Poisson's Theoretic Anticipation of Magnecrystallic Action', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1852), 20-1.
85. It was some years until Tyndall seems to have overcome a certain jealousy of Thomson, some years younger yet more established and clearly much superior mathematically.
86. Henry Bence Jones (1813-1873), physician and chemist, was instrumental in the appointment of Tyndall as Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution in 1853. He became a manager of the Royal Institution in April 1853 and was Secretary from 1860-1872 (ODNB).
87. John Barlow (1798-1869) was Secretary of the Royal Institution from 1843-1860.
88. M. Faraday, 'Observations on the Magnetic Force', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1853), 1, 229-38.
89. J. Tyndall, 'On the Influence of Material Aggregation Upon the Manifestations of Force', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1853), 1, 254-9.
90. E. Frankland, 'John Tyndall', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1894), 55, xviii-xxxiv.
91. F. Kurzer, 'Chemistry and Chemists at the London Institution 1807-1912', Annals of Science (2001), 58, 163-201.
92. Bence Jones was mistaken; the election took place on 4 July, Minutes of General Meetings of The Royal Institution, 93, RI MS AD/02/B/01/A06.
93. J. Tyndall, 'The Eruptive Phenomena of Iceland', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1853), 1, 329-35.
94. Carlo Matteucci (1811-1868), electrophysiologist whose major work was on electric discharge of torpedoes, the resting potential of the frog muscle and action currents, which he discovered (DSB). Matteucci was a good friend of Faraday.
95. J. Plücker, 'On Magnetism', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1853), 7-8.
96. J. Tyndall, 'On the Vibrations and Tones Produced by the Contact of Bodies Having Different Temperatures', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1854), 144, 1-10
97. August Wilhelm von Hofmann (1818-1892) studied with Liebig in Giessen, and became professor and director of the Royal College of Chemistry on its establishment in 1845. In a series of papers in 1849-1851 on substituted ammonias he laid the basis for the theory of atomic valence, with Edward Frankland and others, and the theory of chemical structure, proposed formally by Kekulé and Couper in 1858 (ODNB).
98. Arthur Cayley (1821-1895), mathematician, published early in his career on determinants and invariant theory, and was the first to write a paper on quaternions following their discovery by William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 (ODNB).
99. John Peter Gassiot (1797-1877) was a wealthy wine merchant who had his own laboratory on Clapham Common in which he concentrated on the study of voltaic electricity and discharge of electricity through gases at low pressure (ODNB).
100. Royal Society Minutes of Council, 23 June 1853.
101. R. Jackson, 'John Tyndall and the Royal Medal that was never struck', Notes and Records (2014), 68, 151-64.
102. M. Faraday, 'On Magnetic Hypotheses', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1854), 1, 457-9.
103. Royal Society Minutes of Council, 29 June 1854, which implies Sabine told him before the decision had been formally made.
104. Faraday's Diary, Vol. 6, 288.
105. F. C. O. von Feilitzsch, 'Erklärung der diamagnetischen Wirkungsweise durch die Ampère'sche Theorie', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1854), 92, 366-401 and 536-76.
106. F. C. O. von Feilitzsch, Erklärung der diamagnetischen Wirkungsweise durch die Ampère'sche Theorie', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1852), 87, 206-26 and 427-54.
107. J. Tyndall, 'On some Peculiarities of the Magnetic Field', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1854), 16-7.
108. J. Tyndall, 'On the diamagnetic force', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1854), 14-6.
109. The manuscript has small textual differences to the published paper and stops abruptly near the end of p16 '...to the line which united them. The magnet being...', RS PT/50/1.
110. J. Tyndall, 'On the Nature of the Force by Which Bodies Are Repelled from the Poles of a Magnet; to Which is Prefixed, an Account of Some Experiments on Molecular Influences', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1855), 145, 1-51.
111. J. Tyndall, 'On the Nature of the Force by Which Bodies Are Repelled from the Poles of a Magnet', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1855), 2, 13-6.
112. J. Tyndall, On the Nature of the Force by Which Bodies Are Repelled from the Poles of a Magnet; to Which is Prefixed, to which is prefixed an Account of Some Experiments on Molecular Influences', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 10, 153-79 and 257-90.
113. M. Faraday, 'On some points of magnetic philosophy', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 9, 81-113.
114. J. Tyndall, 'On the existence of a magnetic medium in space', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 9, 205-9.
115. M. Faraday, 'Magnetic Remarks', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 9, 253-5.
116. W,. Thomson, 'Observations on the "Magnetic Medium" and on the Effects of Compression', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 9, 290-3.
117. George Airy (1801-1892), astronomer, became Astronomer Royal in 1835 until his retirement in 1881.
118. A. W. Williamson, 'A Note on the Magnetic Medium', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 7 (1855), 7, 306-8.
119. T. A. Hirst, 'On the Existence of a Magnetic Medium', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854), 7, 448-54.
120. J. Tyndall, 'Experimental Demonstration of the Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies', British Association Report, Notes and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections (London: Murray, 1855), 22-3.
121. W. Weber, 'On the theory of diamagnetism. Letter from Professor Weber to Prof. Tyndall', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 10, 407-9.
122. J. Tyndall, 'Note on Weber's Paper "On the theory of diamagnetism. Letter from Professor Weber to Prof. Tyndall"', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 10, 409-10.
123. J. Tyndall, 'Further Researches on the Polarity of the Diamagnetic Force', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1856), 146, 237-59.
124. J. Tyndall, 'Further Researches on the Polarity of the Diamagnetic Force', Philosophical Magazine (1856), 12, 161-84.
125. J. Tyndall, On the relation of diamagnetic polarity to magnecrystallic action', Philosophical Magazine (1856), 11, 125-37.
126. J. Tyndall, 'Letter to Prof. W Thomson On Reciprocal Molecular Induction', Philosophical Magazine (1855), 10, 422-3.
127. W. Thomson, 'Prof. W. Thomson on the Reciprocal Action of Diamagnetic Particles' Induction', Philosophical Magazine (1856), 11, 66-7.
128. M. Faraday and P. Riess, 'On the Action of Non-conducting Bodies in Electric Induction', Philosophical Magazine (1856), 11, 1-17.
129. F. A. J. L. James The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, Volume 5, 1855-1860 (London, 2008).
130. J. Plücker, 'Ueber die Fessel'sche Wellenmaschine, den neueren Boutigny'schen Versuch und das Ergebnis fortgestetzter Beobachtungen in Betreff des Verhaltens krystallisierten Substanzen gene den Magnetismus', Annalen der Physik und Chemie (1849), 78, 421-31.
131. J. Plücker, 'Action du magnetisme sur les axes des cristaux', Cosmos (1855), 7, 391-6.
132. J. Plücker, 'On the Magnetic Induction of Crystals', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1858), 148, 543-87.
133. Indeed the nomination states 'distinguished for his investigations in geometry, and for his researches in various branches of physical science'. Tyndall did not sign the nomination paper.
134. J. C. Maxwell, 'On Faraday's lines of force', Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1856), 10, 27-83.
135. D. M. Siegel, "Maxwell's Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism", in James Clerk Maxwell: Perspectives on his Life and Work, edited by R. Flood, M. McCartney and A. Whitaker (Oxford: OUP, 2014)
136. A. E. Woodruff, 'The Contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to Electrodynamics', ISIS (1968), 59, 300-11.
137. W. Thomson, Reprints of papers on electrostatics and magnetism (London: Macmillan, 1872).
138. 1000 copies of the first edition were printed (RU MS 1393 A10, p195) and seem to have been sold by 1888. A further 1000 copies were printed in 1888 but 500 copies were 'wasted' in June 1904 and 150 in May 1910. 20 copies were delivered to Mrs Tyndall in 1930 (RU MS 1393 A13, p1678). Tyndall received £120 for the first edition. His more popular books were much more remunerative; Heat a Mode of Motion sold c16,000 copies in England, netting Tyndall around £2200 (RU MS 1393 A7, A10, A14).
139. I am grateful to Professor Sir John Rowlinson, for several ideas in this paragraph.
140. J. Tyndall, Faraday as a Discoverer (London: Longmans, 1868), 105.
141. J. Tyndall, Notes on a course of seven lectures on electrical phenomena and theories (London: Longmans, 1870), 6 (§31).
142. J.C. Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (OUP, 1873) §11;
143. Harman's edition of Maxwell's Letters, vol. 1, 210-1.
144. M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity (London: 1839), vol. 1, 362.
145. M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity (London: 1844), vol. 2, p290
146. 'A speculation touching Electric Conduction and the Nature of Matter', Philosophical Magazine (1844), 24, 136.
147. M. B. Hesse, Forces and fields: the concept of action at a distance in the history of physics (London: Nelson, 1961), 210.
148. S. Sugiyama, 'The significance of the particulate conception of matter in John Tyndall's physical researches', Historia scientarium (1992), 2, 119-38.
149. M. Yamalidou, 'John Tyndall, the Rhetorician of Molecularity. Part One. Crossing the Boundary Towards the Invisible', Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London (1999), 53, 231-42.
150. A. E. Oxley, 'Magnetism and Atomic Structure', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1921), 98, 264-74.
151. D. Gooding, 'Faraday, Thomson, and the magnetic field', British Journal of the History of Science (1980), 13, 91-120.
152. J. C. Maxwell, 'A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1865), 155, 459-512.
153. D. Gooding, 'Final steps of field theory: Faraday's study of magnetic phenomena, 1845-1850', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences (1981), 11, 231-75
154. J. C. Maxwell, 'On action at a distance', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1873), 7, 44-54.
155. D. Gooding, 'Empiricism in Practice: teleology, economy and observation in Faraday's Physics', ISIS (1982), 73, 46-67.
156. S. Schaffer, 'The History and Geography of the Intellectual World: Whewell's Politics of Language' in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait, edited by M. Fisch and S. Schaffer (Oxford: 1991).
157. D. Gooding, 'Experiment and the Making of Meaning' Science and Philosophy (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990), vol. 5, 267-8, 269.
158. H. N. Allen, 'The Graphical Representation of Magnetic Theories', The Physical Review (1896), 3, 470-7.
159. th ed. 1879), 409.
160. Paragraph largely taken from a private communication from Professor Sir John Rowlinson.
161. ch. 7 of R. Flood, M. McCartney and A. Whitaker (Eds), Kelvin. Life, Labours, and Legacy (Oxford: OUP, 2008).
162. Lord Rayleigh (J. W. Strutt), 'The scientific work of John Tyndall', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1894), 14, 216-24.
163. O. Lodge, 'Tyndall, John (1820-1893)', Encyclopaedia Britannica (1903), vol. 10, 517-21.
164. W. H. Bragg, 'Tyndall's experiments on magne-crystallic action', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1927), 25, 161-84.
165. G. Chrystal, 'Magnecrystallic Action', Encyclopaedia Britannica (1883), vol. 15, 264-7.
166. S. Bidwell, 'Magnetism', Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), vol. 11, 321-53.
167. Tyndall's name is not even mentioned in the index to the 848 pages of J.D. Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics (2nd edition, 1975).