Chevron and Skidmore in the workplace: Unhappy together

Fordham Law Review

Volumn 83, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 497-526

  Brudney, James J ^a  

^a FORDHAM UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84938627654     PISSN: 0015704X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (222)

1. 467 U.S. 837 (1984).
2. 323 U.S. 134 (1944).
3. Equal Emp't Opportunity Comm. v. Arabian Am. Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244, 259-60 (1991)
4. Antonin Scalia, Judicial Deference to Administrative Interpretations of Law, 1989 DUKE L.J. 511, 513, 521
5. Kenneth W. Starr, Judicial Review in the Post-Chevron Era, 3 YALE J. ON REG. 283, 297, 307-08 (1986)
6. Thomas O. Sargentich, The Scope of Judicial Review of Issues of Law: Chevron Revisited, 6 ADMIN. L.J. 277 (1992)
7. E. Donald Elliott & Peter H. Schuck, To the Chevron Station: An Empirical Study of Federal Administrative Law, 1990 DUKE L.J. 984, 1024
8. Clark Byse, Judicial Review of Administrative Interpretation of Statutes: An Analysis of Chevron's Step Two, 2 ADMIN. L.J. 255, 266 (1988)
9. Michael Herz, Deference Running Riot: Separating Interpretation and Lawmaking Under Chevron, 6 ADMIN. L.J.187, 208-09 (1992)
10. Thomas W. Merrill, Judicial Deference to Executive Precedent,101 YALE L.J. 969 (1992)
11. 533 U.S. 218 (2001).
12. THE TURTLES, HAPPY TOGETHER (White Whale 1967)
13. Peter M. Shane & Christopher J. Walker,Foreword: Chevron at 30: Looking Back and Looking Forward, 83 FORDHAM L. REV. 475 (2014).
14. Jack M. Beermann,Chevron at the Roberts Court: Still Failing After All These Years, 83 FORDHAM L. REV. 731, 741-43 (2014)
15. Kristin E. Hickman, The Three Phases of Mead, 83 FORDHAM L. REV. 527, 528-30 (2014)
16. Thomas W. Merrill, Step Zero After City of Arlington, 83 FORDHAM L. REV.753, 756-58 (2014)
17. Peter L. Strauss, In Search of Skidmore, 83 FORDHAM L. REV. 789, 792-93 (2014).
18. Beth Israel Hosp. v. NLRB, 437 U.S. 483, 500-01 (1978)
19. NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., 420 U.S. 251, 261-62 (1975)
20. NLRB v. Erie Resistor Corp., 373 U.S. 221, 235-36 (1963)
21. Am. Tobacco Co. v. Patterson, 456 U.S. 63, 69-71 (1982)
22. Gen. Elec. Co. v. Gilbert, 429 U.S. 125, 140-45 (1976)
23. Espinoza v. Farah Mfg. Co., 414 U.S. 86, 93-95 (1973).
24. James J.Brudney, Isolated and Politicized: The NLRB's Uncertain Future, 26 COMP. LAB. L. & POL'Y J. 221, 257-58 (2005).
25. 511 U.S. 571 (1994).
26. 29 U.S.C. §§ 151-169 (2012).
27. Health Care, 511 U.S. at 574.
28. 133 S. Ct. 2434 (2013).
29. James J. Brudney & Corey Ditslear, Canons of Construction and the Elusive Quest for Neutral Reasoning, 58 VAND. L. REV. 1, 15-29 (2005)
30. James J.Brudney & Corey Ditslear, The Warp and Woof of Statutory Interpretation: Comparing Supreme Court Approaches in Tax Law and Workplace Law, 58 DUKE L.J. 1231, 1248-49(2009).
31. William N. Eskridge, Jr. & Lauren E. Baer, The Continuum of Deference: Treatment of Agency Statutory Interpretations from Chevron to Hamdan, 96 GEO. L.J. 1083, 1098 (2008).
32. Historical Statistics About Legislation in the U.S. Congress, GOVTRACK.US, https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/statistics (last visited Oct. 19, 2014)
33. CONGRESS.GOV,https://beta.congress.gov/advanced-search
34. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971)
35. McDonald v. Santa Fe Trail Transp. Co., 427 U.S. 273 (1976)
36. NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. 736 (1962)
37. Fibreboard Paper Prods. Corp. v. NLRB, 379 U.S. 203 (1964)
38. Walling v. Portland Terminal Co., 330 U.S. 148 (1947)
39. Rutherford Food Corp. v. McComb, 331 U.S. 722 (1947)
40. Title VII of 1964 Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000e to 2000e-17 (2012)
41. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, 29 U.S.C. §§ 621-634 (2012)
42. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. §§ 12101-12213 (2012).
43. These statutes include the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), 29 U.S.C. §§ 201-219 (2012)
44. Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA), 29 U.S.C. §§ 1001-1461 (2012)
45. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), 29 U.S.C. §§ 651-678 (2012)
46. Mine Safety and Health Act (MSHA), 30 U.S.C. §§ 801-965 (2012)
47. Longshore and Harbor Workers Compensation Act (LHWCA), 33 U.S.C. §§ 901-950 (2012)
48. Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN), 29 U.S.C. §§ 2101-2109 (2012)
49. Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), 29 U.S.C. §§ 2601-2654 (2012).
50. Of the 119 decisions in which the majority expressly relied on or rejected agency deference during this period, DOL was the relevant agency in thirty cases, EEOC in twenty-seven, and NLRB in twenty-one. The remaining decisions involved thirteen different agencies, only one of which (IRS) was involved in as many as four decisions.
51. The change parallels Congress's enactment of the "substantial evidence" standard as part of the 1946 Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(E) (2012).
52. Universal Camera Corp. v. NLRB, 340 U.S. 474, 488 (1951).
53. NLRB v. Horizons Hotel Corp., 49 F.3d 795, 799 (1st Cir. 1995)
54. J. Huizinga Cartage Co. v. NLRB, 941 F.2d 616, 619, 620-21 (7th Cir. 1991)
55. Pergament United Sales, Inc. v. NLRB, 920 F.2d 130, 138 (2d Cir. 1990).
56. 437 U.S. 483 (1978).
57. NLRB v. Erie Resistor Corp., 373 U.S. 221, 235-36 (1963)
58. Phelps Dodge Corp. v. NLRB, 313 U.S. 177, 194 (1941).
59. NLRB v. Bell Aerospace Co., 416 U.S. 267, 294 (1974).
60. Title VII of 1964 Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000e to 2000e-17 (2012).
61. Gen. Elec. Co. v. Gilbert, 429 U.S. 125, 141 (1976)
62. Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody, 422 U.S. 405, 431 (1975).
63. Gilbert, 429 U.S. at 141 n.20.
64. Gilbert, 429 U.S. at 141-43. See EEOC v. Assoc. Dry Goods Corp., 449 U.S. 590, 600 n.17 (1981)
65. Nashville Gas Co. v. Satty, 434 U.S. 136, 142 n.4 (1977)
66. Trans World Airlines v. Hardison, 432 U.S. 63, 76 n.11 (1977).
67. cf. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 433-34 (1971)
68. Whirlpool Corp. v. Marshall, 445 U.S. 1, 11-13 (1980)
69. Local 3489, United Steelworkers of Am. v. Usery, 429 U.S. 305, 313 (1977)
70. Potomac Elec. Power Co. v. Dir., Office of Workers' Comp. Programs, 449 U.S. 268, 273-80 (1980)
71. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 230-31 (2001).
72. Thomas W. Merrill & Kristin E. Hickman, Chevron's Domain, 89 GEO. L.J. 833, 872 (2001).
73. Merrill & Hickman, supra note 46, at 892.
74. NLRB v. Ky. River Cmty. Care Inc., 532 U.S. 706, 713-14 (2001)
75. Holly Farms Corp. v. NLRB, 517 U.S. 392, 398-99, 408-09 (1996)
76. ABF Freight Sys. v. NLRB, 510 U.S. 317, 324 (1994).
77. NLRB v. United Food & Commercial Workers Union Local 23, 484 U.S. 112, 123-24 (1987)
78. Jonathan D. Hacker, Note, Are Trojan Horse Union Organizers "Employees"?: A New Look at Deference to the NLRB's Interpretation of NLRA Section 2(3), 93 MICH. L. REV. 772, 775-76, 788-89 (1995)
79. Ky. River Cmty. Care Inc., 532 U.S. at 713
80. Holly Farms Corp, 517 U.S. at 398-99, 408-409
81. ABF Freight Sys., 510 U.S. at 324.
82. Hoffman Plastic Compounds Inc. v. NLRB, 535 U.S. 137, 148-49 (2002)
83. Lechmere, Inc. v. NLRB, 502 U.S. 527, 539 (1992)
84. United Food & Commercial Workers Union Local 23, 484 U.S. at 123-24
85. Fall River Dyeing & Finishing Corp. v. NLRB, 482 U.S. 27, 42 (1987)
86. Ford Motor Co. v. NLRB, 441 U.S. 488, 495, 497 (1979)
87. Beth Israel Hosp. v. NLRB, 437 U.S. 483, 501 (1978).
88. 42 U.S.C. § 12116 (2012)
89. 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-4(g)
90. General Dynamics Land Sys., Inc. v. Cline, 540 U.S. 581, 600 (2003)
91. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Echazabal, 536 U.S. 73, 84 (2002)
92. EEOC v. Arabian Am. Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244, 256-57 (1991)
93. Vance v. Ball State Univ., 133 S. Ct. 2434, 2443 n.4 (2013)
94. Univ. of Tex. Sw. Med. Ctr. v. Nassar, 133 S. Ct. 2517, 2533 (2013)
95. Ky. Ret. Sys. v. EEOC, 554 U.S. 135, 150 (2008)
96. Meritor Sav. Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 65 (1986)
97. Int'l Ass'n of Firefighters v. City of Cleveland, 478 U.S. 501, 517-18 (1986)
98. Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 550 U.S. 618, 642 n.11 (2007)
99. Kasten v. Saint-Gobin Performance Plastics Corp., 131 S. Ct. 1325, 1335 (2011)
100. Clackemas Gastroenterology Assoc. v. Wells, 538 U.S. 440, 448-49 (2003)
101. EEOC v. Commercial Office Prod. Co., 486 U.S. 107, 125 (1988)
102. Gen. Dynamics v. Cline, 540 U.S. 581, 605-06 (2004)
103. Pub. Emps. Ret. Sys. of Ohio v. Betts, 492 U.S. 158, 170-71 (1989)
104. Smith v. City of Jackson, 544 U.S. 228, 243 (2005)
105. Fed. Express Corp. v. Holowecki, 552 U.S. 389, 399 (2008)
106. Clackemas, 538 U.S. at 448-51
107. Smith, 544 U.S. 228.
108. Of twenty-seven post-Chevron decisions in which the Court reviewed an EEOC interpretation and expressly invoked agency deference, thirteen involved Title VII, seven involved the ADA, and seven involved the ADEA. Of fourteen pre-Chevron decisions in which the Court examined agency deference to EEOC interpretations, all but one involved Title VII.
109. Long Island Care at Home Ltd. v. Coke, 551 U.S. 158, 173-74 (2007)
110. Pauley v. BethEnergy Mines Inc., 501 U.S. 680, 696-700 (1991)
111. Massachusetts v. Morash, 490 U.S. 107, 116-17 (1989)
112. Pittston Coal Grp. v. Sebben, 488 U.S. 105, 113-17 (1988)
113. Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1335-36 (2011)
114. Yates v. Hendon, 541 U.S. 1, 17-18 (2004)
115. Metro. Stevedore Co. v. Rambo, 521 U.S. 121, 136 (1997)
116. Christensen v. Harris Cnty., 529 U.S. 576, 587 (2000)
117. John Hancock Mut. Life Ins. Co. v. Harris Trust & Sav. Bank, 510 U.S. 86, 106-09 (1993)
118. Pittston Coal Group, 488 U.S. at 113-17
119. Ragsdale v. Wolverine Worldwide, Inc., 535 U.S. 81, 86-96 (2002).
120. New Process Steel L.P. v. NLRB, 130 S. Ct 2635 (2010)
121. NLRB v. Health Care & Retirement Corp., 511 U.S. 571 (1994)
122. Commc'n Workers of Am. v. Beck, 487 U.S. 735 (1988).
123. Kloeckner v. Solis, 133 S. Ct. 596 (2012)
124. Director, Office of Workers' Compensation Programs v. Greenwich Collieries, 512 U.S. 267 (1994).
125. Nate Silver, Supreme Court May Be Most Conservative in Modern History, FIVETHIRTYEIGHT (Mar. 29, 2012, 8:06 PM), http://fivethirtyeight.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/29/supreme-court-may-be-most-conservative-in-modern-history/
126. Andrew D. Martin, Kevin M. Quinn & Lee Epstein, The Median Justice on the United States Supreme Court, 83 N.C. L. REV. 1275, 1300-04 (2005).
127. From 1969 to 1984, Republican Presidents occupied the White House for twelve of sixteen years. Since 1984, Republicans have been President for sixteen years (1985 to 1992 and 2001 to 2008) and Democrats for fourteen years (1993 to 2000 and 2009 to 2014). Assuming the Court's docket through June 2013 would likely include agency rulings only through June 2011, that is still a ratio of sixteen to eleven.
128. Cass R. Sunstein, Law and Administration After Chevron, 90 COLUM. L. REV. 2071 (1990).
129. Connor N. Raso & William N. Eskridge, Jr., Chevron As A Canon, Not A Precedent: An Empirical Study of What Motivates Justices in Agency Deference Cases, 110 COLUM. L. REV. 1727, 1786-89 (2010)
130. Thomas J. Miles & Cass R. Sunstein, Do Judges Make Regulatory Policy? An Empirical Investigation of Chevron, 73 U. CHI. L. REV. 823, 831-47 (2006)
131. Margaret H. Lemos, The Consequences of Congress's Choice of Delegate: Judicial and Agency Interpretations of Title VII, 63 VAND. L. REV. 363, 389-90 (2010).
132. James J. Brudney, Reflections on Group Action and the Law of the Workplace, 74 TEX. L. REV. 1563, 1574 n.43 (1996)
133. Jerry L. Mashaw, Agency-Centered or Court-Centered Administrative Law? A Dialogue with Richard Pierce on Agency Statutory Interpretation, 59 ADMIN. L. REV. 889, 891 (2007).
134. James J. Brudney, A Famous Victory: Collective Bargaining Protections and the Statutory Aging Process, 74 N.C. L. REV. 939, 1023-30 (1996).
135. Hoffman Plastic Compounds v. NLRB, 535 U.S. 137, 146-52 (2002)
136. Between 1969 and 2013 the Court affirmed fifty-eight of ninety-eight pro-employee agency rulings (59 percent) and twenty-eight of thirty-nine pro-employer agency rulings (72 percent).
137. The three primary workplace agencies together favored employers in fifteen of fifty-nine pre-Chevron cases (25 percent) and twenty-six of seventy-eight post-Chevron cases (33 percent).
138. The Court's pro-employer results in cases implicating agency deference rose from twenty-four of fifty-nine pre-Chevron cases (41 percent) to forty-three of seventy-eight post-Chevron cases (55 percent). This pro-employer direction is based on cases in which the Court exercised its discretionary jurisdiction to grant certiorari and issue decisions. The Court's trend does not necessarily indicate whether these three agencies have become more pro-employer in the overall volume of their rulings.
139. NLRB v. Health Care & Ret. Corp. of Am., 511 U.S. 571, 574-75 (1994).
140. Doctors' Hosp. of Modesto, Inc., 183 N.L.R.B. 950, 951-52 (1970), enforced, 489 F.2d. 772 (9th Cir. 1973).
141. NLRB v. Res-Care, Inc., 705 F.2d 1461, 1465 (7th Cir. 1983).
142. S. REP. NO. 93-766, at 6 (1974), reprinted in 1974 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3946, 3951
143. H.R. REP. NO. 93-1051, at 7 (1974).
144. 93 CONG. REC. 4677-78 (1947)
145. 444 U.S. 672 (1980).
146. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 842-43 (1984).
147. The decisions-In re Oakwood Healthcare, Inc., 348 N.L.R.B. 686 (2006)
148. In re Croft Metals, Inc., 348 N.L.R.B. 717 (2006)
149. In re Beverly Enters.-Minn., Inc., 348 N.L.R.B. 727 (2006)
150. ROSS EISENBREY &LAWRENCE MISHEL, ECONOMIC POLICY INSTITUTE, SUPERVISOR IN NAME ONLY: UNION RIGHTS OF EIGHT MILLION WORKERS AT STAKE IN LABOR BOARD RULING (2006), available at http://www.epi.org/publication/ib225/
151. 29 C.F.R. § 1604.11(a)(3) (2013).
152. Burlington Indus., Inc. v. Ellerth, 524 U.S. 742 (1998)
153. Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775 (1998).
154. ENFORCEMENT GUIDANCE: VICARIOUS EMPLOYER LIABILITY FOR UNLAWFUL HARASSMENT BY SUPERVISORS, available at 1999 WL 33305874 (June 18, 1999).
155. Mack v. Otis Elevator Co., 326 F.3d 116, 127 (2d Cir. 2003)
156. Whitten v. Fred's, Inc., 601 F.3d 231, 245-47 (4th Cir. 2010)
157. Dinkins v. Charoen Pokphand USA, 133 F. Supp. 2d 1254, 1266 (M.D. Ala. 2001)
158. Noviello v. City of Bos., 398 F.3d 76, 96 (1st Cir. 2005)
159. Weyers v. Lear Operations Corp., 359 F.3d 1049, 1057 (8th Cir. 2004).
160. Brief for the United States As Amicus Curiae in Support of Neither Party at 28, Vance v. Ball State Univ., 133 S. Ct. 2434 (2013) (No. 11-556), 2012 WL 3864279
161. Kasten v. Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Corp., 131 S. Ct. 1325, 1335 (2011)
162. Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. White, 548 U.S. 53, 70-71 (2006)
163. Pa. State Police v. Suders, 542 U.S. 129, 140 (2004)
164. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 77 (1998)
165. Staub v. Proctor Hosp., 131 S. Ct. 1186, 1190-91, 1193 (2011)
166. For example, President Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health Act and the Mine Safety and Health Act; President Reagan signed the Employee Polygraph Protection Act; and President George H.W. Bush signed the ADA, the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act, and the 1991 Civil Rights Act.
167. Erwin Chemerinsky, The Roberts Court at Age Three, 54 WAYNE L. REV. 947, 955-81 (2008)
168. RONALD DWORKIN, THE SUPREME COURT PHALANX: THE COURT'S NEW RIGHT-WING BLOC 47 (2008)
169. Linda Greenhouse, In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right, N.Y. TIMES, July 1, 2007, at A1.
170. James J. Brudney & Corey Ditslear, Liberal Justices' Reliance on Legislative History: Principle, Strategy, and the Scalia Effect, 29 BERKELEY J. EMP. & LAB. L. 117, 130-31 nn.44-46 (2008).
171. Harris v. Quinn, 134 S. Ct. 2618 (2014)
172. Knox v. Serv. Emps. Int'l Union Local 1000, 132 S. Ct. 2277 (2012)
173. Chi. Teachers Union Local 1 v. Hudson, 475 U.S. 292 (1986)
174. Ellis v. Bhd. of Ry., Airline & S.S. Clerks, 466 U.S. 435 (1984)
175. Abood v. Detroit Bd. of Educ., 431 U.S. 209 (1977).
176. Allentown Mack Sales & Serv., Inc. v. NLRB, 522 U.S. 359 (1998)
177. Commc'ns Workers of Am. v. Beck, 487 U.S. 735 (1988)
178. Univ. of Tex. Sw. Med. Ctr. v. Nassar, 133 S. Ct. 2517 (2013)
179. Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999)
180. James J. Brudney & Lawrence Baum, Oasis or Mirage: The Supreme Court's Thirst for Dictionaries in the Rehnquist and Roberts Eras, 55 WM. & MARY L. REV. 483 (2013)
181. Ellen P. Aprill, The Law of the Word: Dictionary Shopping in the Supreme Court, 30 ARIZ. ST. L.J. 275 (1998)
182. Note, Looking It Up: Dictionaries and Statutory Interpretation, 107 HARV. L. REV. 1437 (1994).
183. Philip P. Frickey, Faithful Interpretation, 73 WASH. U. L.Q. 1085 (1995)
184. Stephen F. Ross, Where Have You Gone Karl Llewellyn? Should Congress Turn Its Lonely Eyes to You?, 45 VAND. L. REV. 561 (1992).
185. Peter L. Strauss, "Deference" Is Too Confusing-Let's Call Them "Chevron Space" and "Skidmore Weight," 112 COLUM. L. REV. 1143, 1145 (2012).
186. Gross v. FBL Financial Services, 557 U.S. 167 (2009)
187. Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105 (2001)
188. Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U.S. 337 (1997)
189. Mertens v. Hewitt Associates, 508 U.S. 248 (1993).
190. Barnhart v. Sigmon Coal Co., 534 U.S. 438 (2002)
191. Dole v. United Steelworkers of Am., 494 U.S. 26 (1990)
192. Lisa Schultz Bressman, Schecter Poultry at the Millennium: A Delegation Doctrine for the Administrative State, 109 YALE L.J. 1399, 1399-1400 (2000)
193. 1999-AT&T Corp. v. Iowa Utils. Bd., 525 U.S. 366 (1999)
194. Donald S. Dobkin, The Rise of the Administrative State: A Prescription for Lawlessness, 17 KAN. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 362, 373-74 (2008)
195. STEPHEN G. BREYER ET AL., ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND REGULATORY POLICY 289-90 (5th ed. 2002))).
196. William N. Eskridge, Jr., Expanding Chevron's Domain: A Comparative Institutional Analysis of the Relative Competence of Courts and Agencies to Interpret Statutes, 2013 WIS. L. REV. 411, 449 (2013)
197. INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U.S. 421, 446 n.30 (1987)
198. Sutton v. United Air Lines Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999)
199. Ansonia Bd. of Educ. v. Philbrook, 479 U.S. 60 (1986)
200. Edelman v. Lynchburg Coll., 535 U.S. 106, 114 (2002)
201. The turn to textualism does not mean that reliance on legislative history or purpose has disappeared. These resources remain relevant both to Chevron Step One analysis and when considering Skidmore expertise.
202. Labor Law Reform Act, S. 2467, 95th Cong. (1978)
203. Workplace Fairness Act, S. 55, 102d Cong. (1992)
204. Employee Free Choice Act, S. 1041, 110th Cong. (2007).
205. Teamwork for Employees and Managers Act of 1995, H.R. 743, 104th Cong. (1996).
206. Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-261, 86 Stat. 103
207. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95-555, 92 Stat. 2076
208. Civil Rights Act of 1991, Pub. L. No. 102-166, 105 Stat. 1071
209. Lily Ledbetter Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-2, 123 Stat. 5.
210. ADEA Amendments of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95-256, 92 Stat. 189
211. ADEA Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-592, 100 Stat. 3342
212. Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-433, 104 Stat. 978.
213. ADA Amendments of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-325, 122 Stat. 3553.
214. Matthew R. Christiansen & William N. Eskridge Jr., Congressional Overrides of Supreme Court Statutory Interpretation Decisions, 1967-2011, 92 TEX. L. REV. 1317, 1356-60 (2014)
215. 1976 Pregnancy Discrimination Act, 1978 ADEA Amendments, 1990 Older Workers Benefit Protection Act, 1991 Civil Rights Act, 2008 ADA Amendments, and 2009 Lily Ledbetter Act.
216. W. Va. Univ. Hosps., Inc. v. Casey, 499 U.S. 83, 115 (1991)
217. Justice Harry A. Blackmun, Conference Notes, EEOC v. Arabian Am. Oil Co. (No. 89-1838) (Jan. 18, 1991)
218. University of Texas Southwest Medical Center v. Nassar, 133 S. Ct. 2517 (2013)
219. Congress has overridden Ledbetter (in 2009 with the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, Pub. L. No. 111-2, 123 Stat. 5) and Sutton (in 2008 by the ADA Amendments Act, Pub. L. No. 110-325, 122 Stat. 3552).
220. NLRB v. Canning, 134 S. Ct. 2550, 2561 (2014)
221. Am. Broad. Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 2498, 2504 (2014)
222. Koons Buick Pontiac GMC, Inc. v. Nigh, 543 U.S. 50, 65-66 (2004)