Body fatness as a cause of cancer: Epidemiologic clues to biologic mechanisms

Endocrine-Related Cancer

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2015, Pages R125-R134

  Byers, Tim ^a   Sedjo, Rebecca L ^a  

^a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Colorado State University and the Department of Environmental and Occupational Health at the Colorado School of Public Health   (United States)

Author keywords

Neoplasia; Obesity

Indexed keywords

AROMATASE; CYTOKINE; ESTROGEN; GROWTH FACTOR; INSULIN; LEPTIN; SEX HORMONE BINDING GLOBULIN; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 3; SOMATOMEDIN C;

BODY FAT; BREAST CANCER; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER RISK; COLORECTAL CANCER; ENDOMETRIUM CANCER; ESOPHAGUS CANCER; GALLBLADDER CANCER; HUMAN; KIDNEY CANCER; LIVER CANCER; NEOPLASM; OBESITY; OVARY CANCER; PANCREAS CANCER; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW; WEIGHT REDUCTION; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY; COMPLICATION; NEOPLASMS; PATHOLOGY; RISK FACTOR;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84937030583     PISSN: 13510088     EISSN: 14796821     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1530/ERC-14-0580     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. Afshar S, Kelly SB, Seymour K, Lara J, Woodcock S & Mathers JC 2014 The effects of bariatric surgery on colorectal cancer risk: systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Surgery 24 1793-1799. (doi:10.1007/s11695-014-1359-y)
2. Aleksandrova K, Jenab M, Boeing H, Jansen E, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Rinaldi S, Riboli E, Overvad K, Dahm CC, Olsen A et al. 2010 Circulating C-reactive protein concentrations and risks of colon and rectal cancer: a nested case-control study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. American Journal of Epidemiology 172 407-418. (doi:10.1093/aje/kwq135)
3. Aleksandrova K, Nimptsch K & Pischon T 2013a Obesity and colorectal cancer. Frontiers in Bioscience 5 61-77.
4. Aleksandrova K, Pischon T, Buijsse B, May AM, Peeters PH, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Jenab M, Fedirko V, Dahm CC, Siersema PD et al. 2013b Adult weight change and risk of colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. European Journal of Cancer 49 3526-3536. (doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2013.06.021)
5. Aleksandrova K, Boeing H, Nöthlings U, Jenab M, Fedirko V, Kaaks R, Lukanova A, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Boffetta P et al. 2014 Inflammatory and metabolic biomarkers and risk of liver and biliary tract cancer. Hepatology 60 858-871. (doi:10.1002/hep.27016)
6. Allen NE, Key TJ, Dossus L, Rinaldi S, Cust A, Lukanova A, Peeters PH, Onland-Moret NC, Lahmann PH, Berrino F et al. 2008 Endogenous sex hormones and endometrial cancer risk in women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocrine-Related Cancer 15 485-497. (doi:10.1677/ERC-07-0064)
7. Allen NE, Tsilidis KK, Key TJ, Dossus L, Kaaks R, Lund E, Bakken K, Gavrilyuk O, Overvad K, Tjønneland A et al. 2010 Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of endometrial carcinoma among postmenopausal women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. American Journal of Epidemiology 172 1394-1403. (doi:10.1093/aje/kwq300)
8. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, Bonds D, Brunner R, Brzyski R, Caan B et al. 2004 Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 291 1701-1712. (doi:10.1001/jama.291.14.1701)
9. ArnoldM, Pandeya N, ByrnesG, Renehan AG, Stevens GA, Ezzati M, Ferlay J, Miranda JJ, Romieu I, Dikshit R et al. 2015 Global burden of cancer attributable to high body mass index in 2012: a population-based study. Lancet. Oncology 16 36-46. (doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(14)71123-4)
10. Arslan AA, Helzlsouer KJ, Kooperberg C, Shu XO, Steplowski E, Buenode-Mesquita HB, Fuchs CS, Gross MD, Jacobs EJ, Lacroix AZ et al. 2010 Anthropometric measures, body mass index, and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis from the Pancreatic Cancer Cohort Consortium (PanScan). Archives of Internal Medicine 170 791-802. (doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2010.63)
11. Baandrup L, FaberMT, Christensen J, JensenA, AndersenKK, Friis S&Kjaer SK 2013 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of ovarian cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 92 245-255. (doi:10.1111/aogs.12069)
12. Bueter M, Dubb SS, Gill A, Joannou L, Ahmed A, Frankel AH, Tam FW & le Roux CW 2010 Renal cytokines improve early after bariatric surgery. British Journal of Surgery 97 1838-1844. (doi:10.1002/bjs.7264)
13. Byers T & Sedjo RL 2011 Does intentional weight loss reduce cancer risk? Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism 13 1063-1072. (doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2011.01464.x)
14. Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K & Thun MJ 2003 Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. New England Journal of Medicine 348 1625-1638. (doi:10.1056/NEJMoa021423)
15. Carmichael AR & Bates T 2004 Obesity and breast cancer: a review of the literature. Breast 13 85-92. (doi:10.1016/j.breast.2003.03.001)
16. Chen Y, Wang X, Wang J, Yan Z & Luo J 2012 Excess body weight and the risk of primary liver cancer: an updated meta-analysis of prospective studies. European Journal of Cancer 48 2137-2145. (doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2012.02.063)
17. Chen Y, Liu L, Wang X, Wang J, Yan Z, Cheng J, Gong G & Li G 2013 Body mass index and risk of gastric cancer: a meta-analysis of a population with more than ten million from 24 prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 22 1395-1408. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0042)
18. Chlebowski RT, Blackburn GL, Thomson CA, Nixon DW, Shapiro A, Hoy MK, Goodman MT, Giuliano AE, Karanja N, McAndrew P et al. 2006 Dietary fat reduction and breast cancer outcome: interim efficacy results from the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98 1767-1776. (doi:10.1093/jnci/djj494)
19. Christou NV, LiebermanM, Sampalis F & Sampalis JS 2008 Bariatric surgery reduces cancer risk in morbidly obese patients. Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases 4 691-695. (doi:10.1016/j.soard.2008.08.025)
20. CustAE, Allen NE, Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Friedenreich C, Olsen A, TjønnelandA, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC et al. 2007 Serum levels of C-peptide, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-2 and endometrial cancer risk; results from the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. International Journal of Cancer 120 2656-2664. (doi:10.1002/ijc.22578)
21. De Pergola G & Silvestris F 2013 Obesity as a major risk factor for cancer. Journal of Obesity 2013 1-11. (doi:10.1155/2013/291546)
22. Dobbins M, Decorby K & Choi BC 2013 The association between obesity and cancer risk: a meta-analysis of observational studies from 1985 to 2011. ISRN Preventive Medicine 2013 680536. (doi:10.5402/2013/680536)
23. Dossus L, Rinaldi S, Becker S, Lukanova A, Tjonneland A, Olsen A, Stegger J, Overvad K, Chabbert-Buffet N, Jimenez-Corona A et al. 2010 Obesity, inflammatory markers, and endometrial cancer risk: a prospective case-control study. Endocrine-Related Cancer 17 1007-1019. (doi:10.1677/ERC-10-0053)
24. Eliassen AH, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC & Hankinson SE 2006 Adult weight change and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association 296 193-201. (doi:10.1001/jama.296.2.193)
25. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group, Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK & Roddam AW 2010 Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP3), and breast cancer risk: pooled individual data analysis of 17 prospective studies. Lancet. Oncology 11 530-542. (doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(10)70095-4)
26. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group, Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, Roddam AW, Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Rollison DE, Dorgan JF, Brinton LA et al. 2011 Circulating sex hormones and breast cancer risk factors in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of 13 studies. British Journal of Cancer 105 709-722. (doi:10.1038/bjc.2011.254)
27. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group, Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, Travis RC, Alberg AJ, Barricarte A, Berrino F, Krogh V, Sieri S et al. 2013 Sex hormones and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women: a collaborative reanalysis of individual participant data from seven prospective studies. Lancet. Oncology 14 1009-1019. (doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70301-2)
28. Garfinkel L 1985 Overweight and cancer. Annals of Internal Medicine 103 1034-1036. (doi:10.7326/0003-4819-103-6-1034)
29. GarlandM, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Speizer F & Willett WC1998 Menstrual cycle characteristics and history of ovulatory infertility in relation to breast cancer risk in a large cohort of US women. American Journal of Epidemiology 147 636-643. (doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009504)
30. Genkinger JM, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, Bernstein L, van den Brandt PA, Calle EE, English DR, Folsom AR, Freudenheim JL, Fuchs CS et al. 2011 A pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies of anthropometric factors and pancreatic cancer risk. International Journal of Cancer 129 1708-1717. (doi:10.1002/ijc.25794)
31. Golabek T, Bukowczan J, Chłosta P, Powroźnik J, Dobruch J & Borówka A 2014 Obesity and prostate cancer incidence and mortality: a systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Urologia Internationalis 92 7-14. (doi:10.1159/000351325)
32. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Longcope C&Speizer FE 1995 Alcohol, height, and adiposity in relation to estrogen and prolactin levels inpostmenopausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 1297-1302. (doi:10.1093/jnci/87.17.1297)
33. Harvie M, Howell A, Vierkant RA, Kumar N, Cerhan JR, Kelemen LE, Folsom AR & Sellers TA 2005 Association of gain and loss of weight before and after menopause with of postmenopausal breast cancer in the Iowa Women's Health Study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 14 656-661. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0001)
34. Ho GY, Wang T, Gunter MJ, Strickler HD, Cushman M, Kaplan RC, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Xue X, Rajpathak SN, Chlebowski RT et al. 2012 Adipokines linking obesity with colorectal cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Cancer Research 72 3029-3037. (doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-2771)
35. Hu MB, Liu SH, Jiang HW, Bai PD & Ding Q 2014 Obesity affects the biopsy-mediated detection of prostate cancer, particularly high-grade prostate cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 29, 464 patients. PLoS ONE 9 e106677. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106677)
36. International Agency for Research on Cancer 2002 Weight Control and Physical Activity. IARC Handbooks of Cancer prevention, Vol 6. Lyon, France: IARC Press.
37. Kaaks R, Tikk K, Sookthai D, Schock H, Johnson T, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Dossus L et al. 2014a Premenopausal serum sex hormone levels in relation to breast cancer risk, overall and by hormone receptor status-results from the EPIC cohort. International Journal of Cancer 134 1947-1957. (doi:10.1002/ijc.28528)
38. Kaaks R, Johnson T, Tikk K, Sookthai D, Tjønneland A, Roswall N, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Dossus L et al. 2014b Insulinlike growth factor I and risk of breast cancer by age and hormone receptor status-A prospective study within the EPIC cohort. International Journal of Cancer 134 2683-2690. (doi:10.1002/ijc.28589)
39. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, Roddam A, Dorgan JF, Longcope C, Stanczyk FZ, Stephenson HE Jr, Falk RT, Miller R et al. 2003 Body mass index, serum sex hormones, and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 95 1218-1226. (doi:10.1093/jnci/djg022)
40. Kitahara CM, Trabert B, Katki HA, Chaturvedi AK, Kemp TJ, Pinto LA, Moore SC, Purdue MP, Wentzensen N, Hildesheim A et al. 2014 Body mass index, physical activity, and serum markers of inflammation, immunity, and insulin resistance. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 23 2840-2849. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-14-0699-T)
41. Lahmann PH, Cust AE, Friedenreich CM, Schulz M, Lukanova A, Kaaks R, Lundin E, Tjønneland A, Halkjaer J, Severinsen MT et al. 2010 Anthropometric measures and epithelial ovarian cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International Journal of Cancer 126 2404-2415. (doi:10.1002/ijc.24952)
42. Ljungberg B, Campbell SC, Choi HY, Jacqmin D, Lee JE, Weikert S & Kiemeney LA 2011 The epidemiology of renal cell carcinoma. European Urology 60 615-621. (doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2011.06.049)
43. Look AHEAD Research Group 2007 Reduction in weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes: one-year results of the look AHEAD trial. Diabetes Care 30 1374-1383. (doi:10.2337/dc07-0048)
44. Louie SM, Roberts LS & Nomura DK 2013 Mechanisms linking obesity and cancer. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1831 1499-1508. (doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.02.008)
45. Mason C, Xiao L, Duggan C, Imayama I, Foster-Schubert KE, Kong A, Campbell KL, Wang CY, Alfano CM, Blackburn GL et al. 2013 Effects of dietary weight loss and exercise on insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin-like growth factor-βinding protein-3 in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 22 1457-1463. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0337)
46. Nagle CM, Marquart L, Bain CJ, O'Brien S, Lahmann PH, Quinn M, Oehler MK, Obermair A, Spurdle AB, Webb PM et al. 2013 Impact of weight change and weight cycling on risk of different subtypes of endometrial cancer. European Journal of Cancer 49 2717-2726. (doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2013.03.015)
47. OlsenCM, NagleCM, WhitemanDC, NessR, PearceCL, PikeMC, RossingMA, Terry KL, Wu AH, Australian Cancer Study (Ovarian Cancer) et al. 2013 Obesity and risk of ovarian cancer subtypes: evidence from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium. Endocrine-Related Cancer 20 251-262. (doi:10.1530/ERC-12-0395)
48. Parker ED & Folsom AR 2003 Intentional weight loss and incidence of obesity-related cancers: the Iowa Women's Health Study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 27 1447-1452. (doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802437)
49. Polyzos SA, Kountouras J, Zavos C & Deretzi G 2011 The potential adverse role of leptin resistance in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a hypothesis based on critical review of the literature. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 45 50-54. (doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181ec5c66)
50. Price AJ, Allen NE, Appleby PN, Crowe FL, Travis RC, Tipper SJ, Overvad K, Grønbæk H, Tjønneland A, Johnsen NF et al. 2012 Insulin-like growth factor-I concentration and risk of prostate cancer: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 21 1531-1541. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0481-T)
51. Protani M, Coory M & Martin JH 2010 Effect of obesity on survival of women with breast cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 123 627-635. (doi:10.1007/s10549-010-0990-0)
52. Rinaldi S, Cleveland R, Norat T, Biessy C, Rohrmann S, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Pischon T, Panico S, Agnoli C et al. 2010 Serum levels of IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and colorectal cancer risk: results from the EPIC cohort, plus a meta-analysis of prospective studies. International Journal of Cancer 126 1702-1715. (doi:10.1002/ijc.24927)
53. Ritte R, Lukanova A, Berrino F, Dossus L, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Overvad TF, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Fournier A et al. 2012 Adiposity, hormone replacement therapy use and breast cancer risk by age and hormone receptor status: a large prospective cohort study. Breast Cancer Research 14 R76. (doi:10.1186/bcr3186)
54. Robsahm TE, Aagnes B, Hjartåker A, Langseth H, Bray FI & Larsen IK 2013 Body mass index, physical activity, and colorectal cancer by anatomical subsites: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 22 492-505. (doi:10.1097/CEJ.0b013e328360f434)
55. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC et al. 2002 Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 288 321-333. (doi:10.1001/jama.288.3.321)
56. Schlesinger S, Aleksandrova K, Pischon T, Fedirko V, Jenab M, Trepo E, Boffetta P, Dahm CC, Overvad K, Tjønneland A et al. 2013 Abdominal obesity, weight gain during adulthood and risk of liver and biliary tract cancer in a European cohort. International Journal of Cancer 132 645-657. (doi:10.1002/ijc.27645)
57. Setiawan VW, Yang HP, Pike MC, McCann SE, Yu H, Xiang YB, Wolk A, Wentzensen N, Weiss NS, Webb PM et al. 2013 Type I and II endometrial cancers: have they different risk factors? Journal of Clinical Oncology 31 2607-2618. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2012.48.2596)
58. Singh S, Sharma AN, Murad MH, Buttar NS, El-Serag HB, Katzka DA & Iyer PG 2013 Central adiposity is associated with increased risk of esophageal inflammation, metaplasia, and adenocarcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 11 1399-1412e7. (doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2013.05.009)
59. Sjöström L, Gummesson A, Sjöström CD, Narbro K, Peltonen M, Wedel H, Bengtsson C, Bouchard C, Carlsson B, Dahlgren S et al. 2009 Effects of bariatric surgeryoncancer incidence inobese patients inSweden(Swedish Obesity Subjects Study): a prospective, controlled intervention trial. Lancet. Oncology 10 653-662. (doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70159-7)
60. Stevens VL, Jacobs EJ, Sun J, McCullough ML, Patel AV, Gaudet MM, Teras LR & Gapstur SM 2012 Weight cycling and risk of endometrial cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 21 747-752. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0038)
61. Tee MC, Cao Y, Warnock GL, Hu FB & Chavarro JE 2013 Effect of bariatric surgery on oncologic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surgical Endoscopy 27 4449-4456. (doi:10.1007/s00464-013-3127-9)
62. Trabert B, Pinto L, Hartge P, Kemp T, Black A, Sherman ME, Brinton LA, Pfeiffer RM, Shiels MS, Chaturvedi AK et al. 2014 Pre-diagnostic serum levels of inflammation markers and risk of ovarian cancer in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer (PLCO) Screening Trial. Gynecologic Oncology 135 297-304. (doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2014.08.025)
63. Tsilidis KK, Allen NE, Appleby PN, Rohrmann S, Nöthlings U, Arriola L, Gunter MJ, Chajes V, Rinaldi S, Romieu I et al. 2015 Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International Journal of Cancer 136 372-381.(doi:10.1002/ijc.28989)
64. Wang F & Xu Y 2014 Body mass index and risk of renal cell cancer: a dose-responsemeta-analysis of published cohort studies. International Journal of Cancer 135 1673-1686. (doi:10.1002/ijc.28813)
65. Wang F, Wang B&Qiao L 2012a Association between obesity and gallbladder cancer. Frontiers in Bioscience 17 2550-2558. (doi:10.2741/4070)
66. Wang Y, Wang B, Shen F, Fan J & Cao H 2012b Body mass index and risk of primary liver cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Oncologist 17 1461-1468. (doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2012-0066)
67. Ward KK, Roncancio AM, Shah NR, Davis MA, Saenz CC, McHale MT & Plaxe SC 2014 Bariatric surgery decreases the risk of uterine malignancy. Gynecologic Oncology 133 63-66. (doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2013.11.012)
68. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2007 Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. Washington, DC, USA: AICR.
69. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2009 Policy and Action for Cancer Prevention. Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity: a Global Perspective. Washington DC, USA: AICR.
70. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2010 Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)
71. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2011 Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)
72. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2012 Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Pancreatic Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)
73. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2013 Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Endometrial Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)
74. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2014a Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Ovarian Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)
75. World Cancer Research Fund International 2014b Continuous Update Project Report: Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Prostate Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Prostate-Cancer-2014-Report.pdf)
76. World Cancer Research Fund International 2015 Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Liver Cancer. Washington DC, USA: AICR. (available at http://www.dietandcancerreport.org)