The effect of India’s total sanitation campaign on defecation behaviors and child health in rural Madhya Pradesh: A cluster randomized controlled trial

PLoS Medicine

Volumn 11, Issue 8, 2015, Pages

  Patil, Sumeet R ^a,b   Arnold, Benjamin F ^b   Salvatore, Alicia L ^c   Briceno, Bertha ^d   Ganguly, Sandipan ^e   Colford, John M ^b   Gertler, Paul J ^b,f  

^a Network for Engineering and Economics Research and Management   (India)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d WORLD BANK   (United States)

^e NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHOLERA AND ENTERIC DISEASES   (India)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANEMIA; ANTHROPOMETRY; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR; CAREGIVER; CHILD; CHILD HEALTH; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEFECATION; DIARRHEA; ESCHERICHIA COLI; FECES ANALYSIS; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GROWTH DISORDER; HEALTH PROGRAM; HELMINTHIASIS; HUMAN; INDIA; INFANT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; NEWBORN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PARASITOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; SANITATION; SOCIAL HYGIENE; WATER QUALITY; CHILD WELFARE; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; EDUCATION; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; GROWTH; INFANT WELFARE; PARASITIC DISEASES; PROCEDURES; PUBLIC HEALTH; RURAL POPULATION; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; TRENDS;

ANEMIA; CHILD WELFARE; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; DEFECATION; DIARRHEA; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; GROWTH; HUMANS; INDIA; INFANT; INFANT WELFARE; MALE; PARASITIC DISEASES; PUBLIC HEALTH; RURAL POPULATION; SANITATION; TOILET FACILITIES;

EID: 84936086523     PISSN: 15491277     EISSN: 15491676     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001709     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Mara D, Lane J, Scott B, Trouba D (2010) Sanitation and health. PLoS Med 7: e1000363.
2. UNICEF, WHO (2012) World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update. New York and Geneva: UNICEF and WHO.
3. Unicef, WHO (2009) Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be done. New York and Geneva: Unicef/WHO.
4. Clasen TF, Bostoen K, Schmidt W-P, Boisson S, Fung IC-H, et al. (2010) Interventions to improve disposal of human excreta for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6: CD007180.
5. Norman G, Pedley S, Takkouche B (2010) Effects of sewerage on diarrhoea and enteric infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 10: 536–544.
6. Barreto ML, Genser B, Strina A, Teixeira MG, Assis AMO, et al. (2010) Impact of a city-wide sanitation programme in Northeast Brazil on intestinal parasites infection in young children. Environ Health Perspect. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20705544. Accessed 20 November 2010.
7. Mascarini-Serra LM, Telles CA, Prado MS, Mattos SA, Strina A, et al. (2010) Reductions in the prevalence and incidence of geohelminth infections following a city-wide sanitation program in a Brazilian Urban Centre. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e588.
8. Ziegelbauer K, Speich B, Maüsezahl D, Bos R, Keiser J, et al. (2012) Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and metaanalysis. PLoS Med 9: e1001162.
9. Chavasse DC, Shier RP, Murphy OA, Huttly SR, Cousens SN, et al. (1999) Impact of fly control on childhood diarrhoea in Pakistan: communityrandomised trial. Lancet 353: 22–25.
10. Emerson PM, Lindsay SW, Alexander N, Bah M, Dibba S-M, et al. (2004) Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 363: 1093–1098.
11. Emerson PM, Simms VM, Makalo P, Bailey RL (2005) Household pit latrines as a potential source of the fly Musca sorbens–a one year longitudinal study from The Gambia. Trop Med Int Health 10: 706–709.
12. Checkley W, Buckley G, Gilman RH, Assis AM, Guerrant RL, et al. (2008) Multi-country analysis of the effects of diarrhoea on childhood stunting. Int J Epidemiol 37: 816–830.
13. Schmidt W-P, Boisson S, Genser B, Barreto ML, Baisley K, et al. (2010) Weightfor-age z-score as a proxy marker for diarrhoea in epidemiological studies. J Epidemiol Community Health 64: 1074–1079.
14. Humphrey JH (2009) Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
15. Prendergast A, Kelly P (2012) Enteropathies in the developing world: neglected effects on global health. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 756–763.
16. Checkley W, Gilman RH, Black RE, Epstein LD, Cabrera L, et al. (2004) Effect of water and sanitation on childhood health in a poor Peruvian peri-urban community. Lancet 363: 112–118.
17. Miguel E, Camerer C, Casey K, Cohen J, Esterling KM, et al. (2014) Promoting transparency in social science research. Science 343: 30–31.
18. Salvatore AL, Patil SR (2011) Scaling up rural sanitation: findings from the impact evaluation baseline survey in Madhya Pradesh, India. The Water and Sanitation Program, The World Bank. Washington (D.C.): The World Bank.
19. Ghosh A, Cairncross S (2014) The uneven progress of sanitation in India. J Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Devel 4: 15–22.
20. Report of the expert group to recommend the detailed methodology for identifcation of families living below poverty line in the urban areas (2012). Planning Commission, Perspective Planning Division, Government of India. Available: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_hasim1701.pdf. Accessed 14 April 2014.
21. Kar K, Chambers R (2008) Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation. Plan International (UK). Available: http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/handbook-community-led-total-sanitation. Accessed 12 February 2013.
22. Baqui AH, Black RE, Yunus M, Hoque AR, Chowdhury HR, et al. (1991) Methodological issues in diarrhoeal diseases epidemiology: definition of diarrhoeal episodes. Int J Epidemiol 20: 1057–1063.
23. Arnold BF, Galiani S, Ram PK, Hubbard AE, Briceñño B, et al. (2013) Optimal recall period for caregiver-reported illness in risk factor and intervention studies: a multicountry study. Am J Epidemiol 177: 361–370.
24. Goldman N, Vaughan B, Pebley AR (1998) The use of calendars to measure child illness in health interview surveys. Int J Epidemiol 27: 505–512.
25. Payment P, Richardson L, Siemiatycki J, Dewar R, Edwardes M, et al. (1991) A randomized trial to evaluate the risk of gastrointestinal disease due to consumption of drinking water meeting current microbiological standards. Am J Public Health 81: 703–708.
26. Colford JM, Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, van der Laan MJ, Brookhart MA, et al. (2005) A randomized, controlled trial of in-home drinking water intervention to reduce gastrointestinal illness. Am J Epidemiol 161: 472–482.
27. Colford JM, Hilton JF, Wright CC, Arnold BF, Saha S, et al. (2009) The Sonoma Water Evaluation Trial: a randomized drinking water intervention trial to reduce gastrointestinal illness in older adults. Am J Public Health 99: 1988–1995.
28. Arnold B, Arana B, Maüsezahl D, Hubbard A, Colford JM (2009) Evaluation of a pre-existing, 3-year household water treatment and handwashing intervention in rural Guatemala. Int J Epidemiol 38: 1651–1661.
29. Gove S (1997) Integrated management of childhood illness by outpatient health workers: technical basis and overview. The WHO Working Group on Guidelines for Integrated Management of the Sick Child. Bull World Health Organ 75 Suppl 1: 7–24.
30. Lipsitch M, Tchetgen ET, Cohen T (2010) Negative controls: a tool for detecting confounding and bias in observational studies. Epidemiology 21: 383–388.
31. Wood L, Egger M, Gluud LL, Schulz KF, Jni P, et al. (2008) Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 336: 601–605.
32. Schmidt W-P, Cairncross S (2009) Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.
33. Cogill B (2003) Anthropometric indicators measurement guide. Washington (D.C.): Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development.
34. De Onis M, Onyango AW, Broeck JV den, Chumlea WC, Martorell R (2004) Measurement and standardization protocols for anthropometry used in the construction of a new international growth reference. Food Nutr Bull 25: S27–S36.
35. WHO (2006) WHO Child Growth Standards: length/height-for-age, weightfor-age, weight-for-length, weight-for-height and body mass index-for-age: Methods and developments. Geneva: WHO.
36. WHO (2011) Haemoglobin concentrations for the diagnosis of anaemia and assessment of severity. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System. Geneva: WHO.
37. Helsel DR (1990) Less than obvious - statistical treatment of data below the detection limit. Environ Sci & Technol 24: 1766–1774.
38. Katz N, Chaves A, Pellegrino J (1972) A simple device for quantitative stool thick-smear technique in Schistosomiasis mansoni. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 14: 397–400.
39. Garcia LS, Shimizu RY (1997) Evaluation of nine immunoassay kits (enzyme immunoassay and direct fluorescence) for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum in human fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol 35: 1526–1529.
40. Den Hartog J, Rosenbaum L, Wood Z, Burt D, Petri, Jr WA (2013) Diagnosis of multiple enteric protozoan infections by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in the guatemalan highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 167–171.
41. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Billhimer WL, Keswick BH, et al. (2006) Combining drinking water treatment and hand washing for diarrhoea prevention, a cluster randomised controlled trial. Trop Med Int Health 11: 479–489.
42. Freedman DA (2006) On the so-called ‘‘Huber sandwich estimator’’ and ‘‘robust standard errors.’’ Am Stat 60: 299–302.
43. Schulz KF, Grimes DA (2005) Multiplicity in randomised trials I: endpoints and treatments. Lancet 365: 1591–1595.
44. Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Cumming O, Jenkins M, et al. (2012) The effect of improved rural sanitation on diarrhoea and helminth infection: design of a cluster-randomized trial in Orissa, India. Emerg Themes Epidemiol 9: 7.
45. Arnold BF, Null C, Luby SP, Unicomb L, Stewart CP, et al. (2013) Clusterrandomised controlled trials of individual and combined water, sanitation, hygiene and nutritional interventions in rural Bangladesh and Kenya: the WASH Benefits study design and rationale. BMJ Open 3: e003476.
46. Cameron L, Shah M, Olivia S (2013) Impact evaluation of a rural sanitation behavior change project in Indonesia. Washington (D.C.): The World Bank.
47. Barnard S, Routray P, Majorin F, Peletz R, Boisson S, et al. (2013) Impact of Indian Total Sanitation Campaign on latrine coverage and use: a cross-sectional study in Orissa three years following programme implementation. PLoS One 8: e71438.
48. Pattanayak SK, Yang JC, Dickinson KL, Poulos C, Patil SR, et al. (2009) Shame or subsidy revisited: social mobilization for sanitation in Orissa, India. Bull World Health Organ 8: 580–587.
49. Arnold BF, Khush RS, Ramaswamy P, London AG, Rajkumar P, et al. (2010) Causal inference methods to study nonrandomized, preexisting development interventions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107: 22605–22610.
50. Galiani S, Gertler P, Orsola-Vidal A (2012) Promoting handwashing behavior in peru: the effect of large-scale mass-media and community level interventions. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6257. Washington (D.C.): The World Bank.
51. Chase C, Do Q-T (2012) Handwashing behavior change at scale: evidence from a randomized evaluation in Vietnam. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6207. Washington (D.C.): The World Bank.
52. Huda TMN, Unicomb L, Johnston RB, Halder AK, Sharker MAY, et al. (2012) Interim evaluation of a large scale sanitation, hygiene and water improvement programme on childhood diarrhea and respiratory disease in rural Bangladesh. Soc Sci Med 75: 604–611.
53. Biran A, Schmidt W-P, Varadharajan KS, Rajaraman D, Kumar R, et al. (2014) Effect of a behaviour-change intervention on handwashing with soap in India (SuperAmma): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health 2: e145–e154.
54. Hueso A, Bell B (n.d.) An untold story of policy failure: the Total Sanitation Campaign in India. Water Policy 15: 1001–1017.
55. Waddington H, Snilstveit B (2009) Effectiveness and sustainability of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in combating diarrhoea. J Dev Eff 1: 295–335.
56. Clasen T, Fabini D, Boisson S, Taneja J, Song J, et al. (2012) Making sanitation count: Developing and testing a device for assessing latrine use in low-income settings. Environ Sci Technol 46: 3295–3303.
57. Thomas EA, Barstow CK, Rosa G, Majorin F, Clasen T (2013) Use of remotely reporting electronic sensors for assessing use of water filters and cookstoves in rwanda. Environ Sci Technol 47: 13602–13610.