Restructuring consciousness -The psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

Volumn 9, Issue June, 2015, Pages

  Gallimore, Andrew R ^a  

^a OKINAWA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY GRADUATE UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Integrated information theory; Integration; Ketamine; LSD; Neural complexity; Neural entropy; Psilocybin; Psychedelic state

Indexed keywords

LYSERGIDE; PSILOCYBINE;

ARTICLE; AWARENESS; BRAIN FUNCTION; CLASSIFICATION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CONNECTOME; CONSCIOUSNESS; CONSCIOUSNESS DISORDER; CREATIVITY; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMAN; IMAGINATION; INTEGRATED INFORMATION THEORY; MATHEMATICAL PARAMETERS; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEURAL INTEGRATION; PSYCHEDELIC STATE; THEORY VALIDATION;

EID: 84935913181     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16625161     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. Aan het Rot, M., Collins, K. A., Murrough, J. W., Perez, A. M., Reich, D. L., Charney, D. S., et al. (2010). Safety and efficacy of repeated-dose intravenous ketamine for treatment-resistant depression. Biol. Psychiatry 67, 139-145. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.08.038
2. Balduzzi, D., and Tononi, G. (2009). Qualia: the geometry of integrated information. PLoS Comput. Biol. 5 :e1000462. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000462
3. Behrendt, R. P. (2003). Hallucinations: synchronisation of thalamocortical gamma oscillations underconstrained by sensory input. Conscious. Cogn. 12, 413-451. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8100(03)00017-5
4. Behrendt, R. P., and Young, C. (2004). Hallucinations in schizophrenia, sensory impairment, and brain disease: a unifying model. Behav. Brain Sci. 27,771-830. doi: 10.1017/SO140525X04000184
5. Berman, R. M., Cappiello, A., Anand, A., Oren, D. A., Heninger, G. R., Charney, D. S., et al. (2000). Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol. Psychiatry 47, 351-354. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00230-9
6. Buchborn, T., Schroeder, H., Hoellt, V., and Grecksch, G. (2014). Repeated lysergic acid diethylamide in an animal model of depression: normalisation of learning behaviour and hippocampal serotonin 5-HT2 signalling. J. Psychopharmacol. 28, 545-552. doi: 10.1177/0269881114531666
7. Burwick, T. (2014). The binding problem. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Cogn. Sci. 5, 305-315. doi: 10.1002/wcs.l279
8. Buzsaki, G. (2006). Rhythms of the Brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9. Cardin, J. A., Carlen, M., Meletis, K., Knoblich, U., Zhang, F., Deisseroth, K., et al. (2009). Driving fast-spiking cells induces gamma rhythm and controls sensory responses. Nature 459, 663-667. doi: 10.1038/nature08002
10. Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colas anti, A., et al. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109,2138-2143. doi: 10.1073/pnas.l119598109
11. Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T. M., Stone, J. M., Evans, J., et al. (2013). Functional connectivity measures after psilocybin inform a novel hypothesis of early psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 1343-1351. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbsll7
12. Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Hellyer, P. J., Shanahan, M., Feilding, A., Tagliazucchi, E., et al. (2014). The entropie brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:20. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020
13. Casali, A. G., Gosseries, O., Rosanova, M., Boly, M., Saras so, S., Casali, K. R., et al. (2013). A theoretically based index of consciousness independent of sensory processing and behavior. Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 10. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3006294
14. Chialvo, D. R. (2010). Emergent complex neural dynamics. Nat. Phys. 6, 744-750. doi: 10.1038/nphysl803
15. Don, N. S., McDonough, B. E., Moura, G., Warren, C. A., Kawanishi, K., Tomita, H., et al. (1998). Effects of Ayahuasca on the human EEG. Phytomedicine 5, 87-96. doi: 10.1016/S0944-7113(98)80003-2
16. Esser, S. K., Hill, S., and Tononi, G. (2009). Breakdown of effective connectivity during slow wave sleep: investigating the mechanism underlying a corticalgate using large-scale modeling. J. Neurophysiol. 102, 2096-2111. doi: 10.1152/jn.00059.2009
17. Ferrarelli, F., Massimini, M., Sarasso, S., Casali, A., Riedner, B. A., Angelini, G., et al. (2010). Breakdown in cortical effective connectivity during midazolam- induced loss of consciousness. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107,2681-2686. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0913008107
18. Fox, M. D., Snyder, A. Z., Vincent, J. L., Corbetta, M., van Essen, D. C., and Raichle, M. E. (2005). The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 9673-9678. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0504136102
19. Frecska, E., More, C. E., Vargha, A., and Luna, L. E. (2012). Enhancement of creative expression and entoptic phenomena as after-effects of repeated ayahuasca ceremonies. J. Psychoactive Drugs 44, 191-199. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2012.703099
20. Friston, K. J. (1994). Functional and effective connectivity in neuroimaging: a synthesis. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2, 56-78. doi: 10.1002/hbm.460020107
21. Gomez, F., Phillips, C., Soddu, A., Boly, M., Boveroux, P., Vanhaudenhuyse, A., et al. (2013). Changes in effective connectivity bypropofol sedation. PLoS ONE 8:e71370. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071370
22. Gray, C. M., and Singer, W. (1989). Stimulus-specific neuronal oscillations in orientation columns of cat visual-cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86, 1698-1702. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.5.1698
23. Guillery, R. W., and Sherman, S. M. (2002). Thalamic relay functions and their role in corticocortical communication: generalizations from the visual system. Neuron 33, 163-175. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00582-7
24. Gunduz-Bruce, H. (2009). The acute effects of NMDA antagonism: from the rodent to the human brain. Brain Res. Rev. 60, 279-286. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.006
25. Hofmann, A. (1980). LSD: My Problem Child. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
26. Hollister, L. E. (1984). “Effects of hallucinogens in humans" in Hallucinogens: Neurochemical, Behavioral and Clinical Perspectives, ed B. L. Jacobs (NewYork, NY: Raven Press), 19-33.
27. Joliot, M., Ribary, U., and Llinas, R. (1994). Human oscillatory brain activity near 40 Hz coexists with cognitive temporal binding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 11748-11751. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.24.11748
28. Jones, K. A., Blagrove, M., and Parrott, A. C. (2009). Cannabis and Ecstasy/MDMA: empirical measures of creativity in recreational users. J. Psychoactive Drugs 41, 323-329. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2009.10399769
29. Krystal, J. H., Karper, L. P., Seibyl, J. P., Freeman, G. K., Delaney, R., Bremner, J. D., et al. (1994). Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans—psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51, 199-214. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950030035004
30. Lee, L., Harrison, L. M., and Mechelli, A. (2003). A report of the functional connectivity workshop, Dusseldorf 2002. Neuroimage 19, 457-465. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00062-4
31. Llinas, R., and Ribary, U. (1993). Coherent 40-Hz oscillation characterizes dream state in humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90, 2078-2081. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.5.2078
32. Margolis, E., and Laurence, S. (2014). Concepts. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition). Available online at: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/concepts/. [Accessed 12 December 2014].
33. Massimini, M., Ferrarelli, F., Huber, R., Esser, S. K., Singh, H., and Tononi, G. (2005). Breakdown of cortical effective connectivity during sleep. Science 309, 2228-2232. doi: 10.1126/science.1117256
34. Masters, R. E. L. (1966). The Varieties of Psychedelic Experience. New York, NY: Henry Holt & Company, Inc.
35. Merker, B. (2013). Cortical gamma oscillations: the functional key is activation, not cognition. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37, 401-417. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.013
36. Moreno, F. A., and Delgado, P. L. (1997). Hallucinogen-induced relief of obsessions and compulsions. Am. J. Psychiatry 154, 1037-1038. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.7.1037b
37. Murray, R. M., Paparelli, A., Morrison, P. D., Marconi, A., and di Forti, M. (2013). What can we learn about schizophrenia from studying the human model, drug- induced psychosis? Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 162, 661-670. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32177
38. Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Moran, R. J., Brookes, M. J., Williams, T. M., Errtizoe, D., et al. (2013). Broadband cortical desynchronization underlies the human psychedelic state. J. Neurosci. 33, 15171-15183. doi: 10.1523/JNEUR0SCI.2063-13.2013
39. Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? Philos. Rev. 84, 435-450. doi: 10.2307/2183914
40. Nichols, D. E. (2004). Hallucinogens. Pharmacol. Ther. 101, 131-181. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002
41. Oizumi, M., Albantakis, L., and Tononi, G. (2014). From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: integrated information theory 3.0. PLoS Comput. Biol. 10:e1003588. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003588
42. Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., et al. (2014). Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks. J. R. Soc. Interface 11:20140873. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2014.0873
43. Puig, M. V., and Gulledge, A. T. (2011). Serotonin and prefrontal cortex function: neurons, networks, and circuits. Mol. Neurobiol. 44, 449-464. doi: 10.1007/s12035-011-8214-0
44. Puig, M. V., Watakabe, A., Ushimaru, M., Yamamori, T., and Kawaguchi, Y. (2010). Serotonin modulates fast-spiking interneuron and synchronous activity in the rat prefrontal cortex through 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. J. Neurosci. 30, 2211-2222. doi: 10.1523/JNEUR0SCI.3335-09.2010
45. Qin, P. M., and Northoff, G. (2011). How is our self related to midline regions and the default-mode network? Neuroimage 57, 1221-1233. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.05.028
46. Riba, J., Anderer, P., Jane, F., Saletu, B., and Barbanoj, M. J. (2004). Effects of the South American psychoactive beverage Ayahuasca on regional brain electrical activity in humans: a functional neuroimaging study using low- resolution electromagnetic tomography. Neuropsychobiology 50, 89-101. doi: 10.1159/000077946
47. Riba, J., Anderer, P., Morte, A., Urbano, G., Jane, F., Saletu, B., et al. (2002). Topographic pharmaco-EEG mapping of the effects of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca in healthy volunteers. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 53, 613-628. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2125.2002.01609.x
48. Roseman, L., Leech, R., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., and Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2014). The effects of psilocybin and MDMA on between-network resting state functional connectivity in healthy volunteers. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:204. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00204
49. Sarasso, S., Rosanova, M., Casali, A. G., Casarotto, S., Fecchio, M., Boly, M., et al. (2014). Quantifying cortical EEG responses to TMS in (Un)consciousness. Clin. EEG Neurosci. 45, 40-49. doi: 10.1177/1550059413513723
50. Schroter, M. S., Spoormaker, V. I., Schorer, A., Wohlschlager, A., Czisch, M., Kochs, E. F., et al. (2012). Spatiotemporal reconfiguration of large-scale brain functional networks during propofol-induced loss ofconsciousness. J. Neurosci. 32, 12832-12840. doi: 10.1523/JNEUR0SCI.6046-11.2012
51. Sessa, B. (2008). Is it time to revisit the role of psychedelic drugs in enhancing human creativity? J. Psychopharmacol. 22, 821-827. doi: 10.1177/0269881108091597
52. Stuckey, D. E., Lawson, R., and Luna, L. E. (2005). EEG gamma coherence and other correlates of subjective reports during ayahuasca experiences. J. Psychoactive Drugs 37, 163-178. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399798
53. Supp, G. G., Siegel, M., Hipp, J. F., and Engel, A. K. (2011). Cortical hypersynchrony predicts breakdown of sensory processing during loss of consciousness. Curr. Biol. 21, 1988-1993. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.017
54. Tagliazucchi, E., Carhart-Harris, R., Leech, R., Nutt, D., and Chialvo, D. R. (2014). Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience. Hum. Brain Mapp. 35, 5442-5456. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22562
55. Tononi, G. (2012). Integrated information theory of consciousness: an updated account. Arch. Ital. Biol. 150, 56-90. doi: 10.4449/aib.v149i5.1388
56. Tononi, G., and Edelman, G. M. (2000). Schizophrenia and the mechanisms of conscious integration. Brain Res. Rev. 31, 391-400. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00056-9
57. Tononi, G., Edelman, G. M., and Sporns, O. (1998). Complexity and coherency: integrating information in the brain. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2, 474-484. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01259-5
58. Varela, F., Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E., and Martinerie, J. (2001). The brainweb: phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2, 229-239. doi: 10.1038/35067550
59. Vollenweider, F. X. (2001). Brain mechanisms of hallucinogens and entactogens. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 3, 265-279.
60. Vollenweider, F. X., Leenders, K. L., Scharfetter, C., Maguire, P., Stadelmann, O., and Angst, J. (1997). Positron emission tomography and fluorodeoxyglucose studies of metabolic hyperfrontality and psychopathology in the psilocybin model of psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 16, 357-372. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(96)00246-1
61. Vollenweider, F. X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M. F. I., Babler, A., Vogel, H., and Hell, D. (1998). Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action. Neuroreport 9, 3897-3902. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199812010-00024