Impacts of climate change on vector borne diseases in the mediterranean basin — implications for preparedness and adaptation policy

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 12, Issue 6, 2015, Pages 6745-6770

  Negev, Maya ^a   Paz, Shlomit ^a   Clermont, Alexandra ^b   Pri Or, Noemie Groag ^a   Shalom, Uri ^c   Yeger, Tamar ^c   Green, Manfred S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

^b ARAVA INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES   (Israel)

^c Israel Ministry of the Environmental Protection   (Israel)

Author keywords

Adaptation policy; Climate change; Mediterranean; Vector borne diseases

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE EFFECT; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DISEASE VECTOR; INFECTIOUS DISEASE; POLICY DEVELOPMENT; TRANSBOUNDARY COOPERATION;

AEDES AEGYPTI; AEDES ALBOPICTUS; ANOPHELES; ARTICLE; CHIKUNGUNYA; CHIKUNGUNYA VIRUS; CLIMATE CHANGE; CULEX; DENGUE; DENGUE VIRUS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; LAW ENFORCEMENT; LEISHMANIASIS; MALARIA; NONHUMAN; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PARASITE VECTOR; PHLEBOTOMUS; PLASMODIUM; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; SOUTHERN EUROPE; VECTOR BORNE DISEASE; VECTOR CONTROL; VIRUS CARRIER; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WEST NILE FEVER; WEST NILE VIRUS; ANIMAL; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DISEASE CARRIER;

MEDITERRANEAN SEA;

WEST NILE VIRUS;

ANIMALS; CLIMATE CHANGE; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DISEASE VECTORS; HEALTH POLICY; HUMANS; MEDITERRANEAN REGION;

EID: 84934959102     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120606745     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Summary for policymakers. In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P.M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013; p. 535.
2. Patz, J.A.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; Holloway, T.; Foley, J.A. Impact of regional climate change on human health. Nature 2005, 438, 310–317.
3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Summary for policymakers. In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral. Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2014; pp. 1–32.
4. Tabachnick, W. Challenges in predicting climate and environmental effects on vector-borne disease episystems in a changing world. J. Exp. Biol. 2010, 213, 946–954.
5. Ebi, K.L.; Lindgren, E.; Suk, J.E.; Semenza, J.C. Adaptation to the infectious disease impacts of climate change. Clim. Chang. 2013, 118, 355–365.
6. Paz, S. Climate change impacts on west nile virus transmission in a global context. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B.-Biol. Sci. 2015, 370, doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0561.
7. Rogers, D.; Randolph, S. Climate change and vector-borne diseases. Adv. Parasitol. 2006, 62, 345–381.
8. Semenza, J.C.; Menne, B. Climate change and infectious diseases in Europe. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2009, 9, 365–375.
9. World Health Organization (WHO). Climate Change and Health: Fact Sheet No. 266. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs266/en/ (accessed on 19 May 2015).
10. Paz, S.; Albersheim, I. Influence of warming tendency on Culex pipiens population abundance and on the probability of West Nile fever outbreaks (Israeli Case Study: 2001–2005). Ecohealth 2008, 5, 40–48.
11. Paz, S.; Malkinson, D.; Green, M.S.; Tsioni, G.; Papa, A.; Danis, K.; Sirbu, A.; Ceianu, C.; Katalin, K.; Ferenczi, E.; et al. Permissive summer temperatures of the 2010 European West Nile Fever upsurge. PLoS ONE 2013, 8 , doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056398.
12. Murray, N.E.A.; Quam, M.B.; Wilder-Smith, A. Epidemiology of dengue: Past, present and future prospects. Clin. Epidemiol. 2013, 5, 299–309.
13. Gualdi, S.; Somot, S.; Li, L.; Artale, V.; Adani, M.; Bellucci, A.; Braun, A.; Calmanti, S.; Carillo, A.; Dell’Aquila, A. et al. The CIRCE simulations: Regional climate change projections with realistic representation of the Mediterranean Sea. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 2013, 94, 65–81.
14. Luterbacher, J.; Xoplaki, E.; Casty, C.; Wanner, H.; Pauling, A.; Küttel, M.; Rutishauser, T.; Brönnimann, S.; Fischer, E.; Fleitmann, D, et al. Mediterranean climate variability over the last centuries: A review. In Mediterranean Climate Variability; Lionello, P., Malanotte-Rizzoli, P., Boscolo, R., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2006; pp. 27–148.
15. Lionello, P.; Malanotte-Rizzoli, P.; Boscolo, R.; Alpert, P.; Artale, V.; Li, L.; Luterbacher, J.; May, W.; Trigo, R.; Tsimplis, M, et al. The Mediterranean climate: An overview of the main characteristics and issues. In Mediterranean Climate Variability; Lionello, P., Malanotte-Rizzoli, P., Boscolo, R., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2006; pp. 1–26.
16. Giorgi, F.; Piero, L. Climate change projections for the Mediterranean region. Glob. Planet. Chang. 2008, 63, 90–104.
17. Alpert, P.T.; Ben-Gai, A.; Baharad, Y.; Benjamini, D.; Yekutieli, M.; Colacino, L.; Diodato, C.; Ramis Homar, V.; Romero, R.; Michaelides, S, et al. The paradoxical increase of Mediterranean extreme daily rainfall in spite of decrease in total values. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002, 29, 1–4.
18. Kuglitsch, F.G.; Toreti, A.; Xoplaki, E.; Della-Marta, P.M.; Zerefos, C.S.; Türkeş, M.; Luterbacher, J. Heat wave changes in the eastern Mediterranean since 1960. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37, doi:10.1029/2009GL041841.
19. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Field, C.B., Barros, V., Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Dokken, D.J., Ebi, K.L., Mastrandrea, M.D., Mach, K.J., Plattner, G.K., Allen, S.K., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2012; p. 582.
20. Tran, A.; Sudre, B.; Paz, S.; Rossi, M.; Desbrosse, A.; Chevalier, V.; Semenza, J.C. Environmental predictors of West Nile Fever risk in Europe. Int. J. Health Geogr. 2014, 13, doi:10.1186/1476-072X-13-26.
21. Gould, E.A.; Higgs, S. Impact of climate change and other factors on emerging arbovirus diseases. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 103, 109–121.
22. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Vector-Borne Diseases. Available online: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/climate_change/health_effects/Pages/vector_borne_ diseases.aspx (accessed on 19 May 2015).
23. Fischer, D.; Thomas, S.M.; Neteler, M.; Tjaden, N.B.; Beierkuhnlein, C. Climatic suitability of Aedes albopictus in Europe referring to climate change projections: Comparison of mechanistic and correlative niche modelling approaches. Eurosurveillance 2014, 19. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20696 (accessed on 10 June 2015).
24. World Health Organization (WHO). Quantitative Risk Assessment of the Effects of Climate Change on Selected Causes of Death, 2030s and 2050s; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014; p. 115. Available online: http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/134014 (accessed on 19 May 2015).
25. Reiter, P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 141–161.
26. Reisen, W.K.; Fang, Y.; Martinez, V.M. Effects of temperature on the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2006, 43, 309–317.
27. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Meola, M.A.; Moudy, R.M.; Kramer, L.D. Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000092.
28. Landesman, W.J.; Allan, B.F.; Langerhans, R.B.; Knight, T.M.; Chase, J.M. Inter-annual associations between precipitation and human incidence of West Nile virus in the United States. Vector-Borne Zoonot. 2007, 7, 337–343.
29. Soverow, J.E.; Wellenius, G.A.; Fisman, D.N.; Mittleman, M.A. Infectious disease in a warming world: How weather influenced West Nile virus in the United States (2001–2005). Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 1049–1052.
30. Hii, Y.L.; Rocklöv, J.; Ng, N.; Tang, C.S.; Pang, F.Y.; Sauerborn, R. Climate variability and increase in incidence and magnitude of dengue incidence in Singapore. Glob. Health Action 2009 2, doi:10.3402/gha.v2i0.2036.
31. Pascual, M.; Cazelles, B.; Bouma, M.J.; Chaves, L.F.; Koelle, K. Shifting patterns: Malaria dynamics and rainfall variability in an East African highland. Proc. Roy. Soc. London Ser. B-Biol. Sci. 2008, 275, 123–132.
32. Chevalier, V.; Tran, A.; Durand, B. Predictive modeling of West Nile virus transmission risk in the Mediterranean Basin: How far from landing? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 11, 67–90.
33. Shaman, J.; Stieglitz, M.; Stark, C.; le Blancq, S.; Cane, M. Using a dynamic hydrology model to predict mosquito abundances in flood and swamp water. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 8–13.
34. Chase, J.M.; Knight, T.M. Drought‐induced mosquito outbreaks in wetlands. Ecol. Lett. 2003, 6, 1017–1024.
35. Hii, Y.L.; Zhu, H.; Ng, N.; Ng, L.C.; Rocklöv, J. Forecast of dengue incidence using temperature and rainfall. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2012, 6, doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001908.
36. Paz, S.; Xoplaki, E.; Gershunov, A. Impacts of Mediterranean Climate Change on Human Health. In Proceedings of the Workshop Impacts of Mediterranean Climate Change on Human Health, Energy, Environment and Water Research Center, Paphos, Cyprus, 19–21 October 2009.
37. Paz, S.; Semenza, J.C. Environmental drivers of West Nile Fever epidemiology in Europe and Eurasia—Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 3543–3562.
38. Paz, S. The West Nile Virus outbreak in Israel (2000) from a new perspective: The regional impact of climate change. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2006, 16, 1–13.
39. Kopel, E.; Amitai, Z.; Bin, H.; Shulman L.M.; Mendelson, E.; Sheffer, R. Surveillance of West Nile virus disease, Tel Aviv district, Israel, 2005 to 2010. Eurosurveillance 2011, 16. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=19894 (accessed on 10 June 2015).
40. West Nile Fever—Updated Guidelines; Head of Public Health Services, State of Israel, Ministry of Health: Jerusalem, Israel, 2011.
41. Danis, K.; Papa, A.; Theocharopoulos, G.; Dougas, G.; Athanasiou, M.; Detsis, M.; Baka, A.; Lytras, T.; Bonovas, S.; Panagiotopoulos, T. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection in Greece, 2010. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011, 17, 1868–1872.
42. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). 2010 in the Top Three Warmest Years, 2001–2010 Warmest 10 Year Period. 2010. Available online: https://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_904_en.html (accessed on 19 May 2015).
43. Annual Epidemiological Report 2014: Emerging and Vector-Borne Diseases; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC): Stockholm, Sweden, 2014; p. 52. Available online: http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/emerging-vector-borne-diseases_annualepidemiological- report-2014.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2015).
44. Bhatt, S.; Gething, P.W.; Brady, O.J.; Messina, J.P.; Farlow, A.W.; Moyes, C.L.; Drake, J.M.; Brownstein, J.S.; Hoen, A.G.; Sankoh, O, et al. The global distribution and burden of dengue. Nature 2013, 496, 504–507.
45. Van Kleef, E.; Bambrick, H.; Hales, S. The Geographic Distribution of Dengue Fever and the Potential Influence of Global Climate Change. Available online: http://journal.tropika.net/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2078–86062010005000001&lng=en&nrm=iso (accessed on 21 February 2015).
46. Scholte, E.J.; Schaffner, F. Waiting for the tiger: Establishment and spread of the Aedes albopictus mosquito in Europe. In Emerging Pests and Vector-Borne Disease in Europe; Takken, W., Knols B.G.J., Eds.; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, the Netherlands, 2007; pp. 241–260.
47. Environmental Risk Mapping: Aedes albopictus in Europe; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC): Stockholm, Sweden, 2013; p. 33. Available online: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/climate-change-environmental-risk-mapping-aedes.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
48. Development of Aedes Albopictus Risk Maps; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC): Stockholm, Sweden, 2009; p. 45. Available online: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/0905_TER_Development_of_Aedes_Albopictus_Risk_Maps.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
49. Gjenero-Margan, I.; Aleraj, B.; Krajcar, D.; Lesnikar, V.; Klobučar, A.; Pem-Novosel, I.; Kurečić-Filipović, S.; Komparak, S.; Martić, R.; Duričić, S.; et al. Autochthonous dengue fever in Croatia, August-September 2010. Eurosurveillance 2011, 16. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=19805 (accessed on 10 June 2015).
50. Rapid Risk Assessment: Autochthonous Dengue Cases in Madeira, Portugal, 10 October 2012; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC): Stockholm, Sweden, 2012; p. 8. Available online: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/Dengue-Madeira-Portugalrisk- assessment.pdf (accessed on 21 February 2015).
51. World Health Organization (WHO). Dengue and Severe Dengue: Fact Sheet No. 117. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/index.html (accessed on 21 February 2015).
52. CDC 2014. Chikungunya Virus. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/transmission/index.html (accessed on 20 February 2015).
53. Poletti, P.; Messeri, G.; Ajelli, M.; Vallorani, R.; Rizzo, C.; Merler, S. Transmission potential of chikungunya virus and control measures: The case of Italy. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018860.
54. Hubálek, Z. Mosquito-borne viruses in Europe. Parasitol. Res. 2008, 103, 29–43.
55. Simon, F.; Javelle, E.; Oliver, M.; Leparc-Goffart, I.; Marimoutou, C. Chikungunya virus infection. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2011, 13, 218–228.
56. World Health Organization (WHO)—Eastern Mediterranean. Demographic, Social and Health Indicators for Countries of the Eastern Mediterranean. Available online: http://applications.emro.who.int/dsaf/EMROPUB_2013_EN_1537.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 21 February 2015).
57. CDC 2012. Anopheles Mosquitoes. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/mosquitoes/ (accessed on 20 February 2015).
58. Jaffe, C.L.; Baneth, G.; Abdeen, Z.A.; Schlein, Y.; Warburg, A. Leishmaniasis in Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Trends Parasitol. 2004, 20, 328–332.
59. Schnur, L.F.; Nasereddin, A.; Eisenberger, C.L.; Jaffe, C.L.; El Fari, M.; Azmi, K.; Anders, G.; Killick-Kendrick, M.; Killick-Kendrick, R.; Dedet, J.P, et al. Multifarious characterization of Leishmania tropica from a Judean desert focus, exposing intraspecific diversity and incriminating Phlebotomus sergenti as its vector. Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2004, 70, 364–372.
60. CDC 2013. Parasites-Leishmaniasis. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/leishmaniasis/gen_info/faqs.html (accessed on 20 February 2015).
61. Alvar, J.; Vélez, I.D.; Bern, C.; Herrero, M.; Desjeux, P.; Cano, J.; Jannin, J.; den Boer, M.; WHO Leishmaniasis Control Team. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035671.
62. Killick-Kendrick, R. The biology and control of phlebotomine sand flies. Clin. Dermatol. 1999, 17, 279–289.
63. Ready, P.D. Leishmaniasis emergence in Europe. Eurosurveillance 2010, 5. Available online: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=19505 (accessed on 10 June 2015).
64. Wasserberg, G.; Yarom, I.; Warburg, A. Seasonal abundance patterns of the sand fly Phlebotomus papatasi in climatically distinct foci of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Israeli deserts. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2003, 17, 452–456.
65. Boussaa, S.; Guernaoui, S.; Pesson, B.; Boumezzough, A. Seasonal fluctuations of Phlebotomine sand fly populations (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the urban area of Marrakech, Morocco. Acta Trop. 2005, 95, 86–91.
66. Protecting Health in An Environment Challenged by Climate Change: European Regional Framework for Action; World Health Organization (WHO): Copenhagen, Denmark, 2010; p. 9. Available online: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/95882/Parma_EH_Conf_edoc06rev1.pdf (accessed on 24 February 2015).
67. Luber, G.; Prudent, N. Climate change and human health. Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 2009, 120, 113–117.
68. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Sixteenth Session. Available online: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf (accessed on 26 February 2015).
69. Climate Change and Communicable Diseases in the EU Member States. Handbook for National Vulnerability, Impact and Adaptation Assessments; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC): Stockholm, Sweden, 2010; p. 43. Available online: http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/1003_TED_handbook_climatechange.pdf (accessed on 24 February 2015).
70. Boeckmann, M.; Zeeb, H. Using a social justice and health framework to assess European climate change adaptation strategies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 12389–12411.
71. Panic, M.; Ford, J.D. A review of national-level adaptation planning with regards to the risks posed by climate change on infectious diseases in 14 OECD Nations. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 7083–7109.
72. World Health Organization (WHO). Implementing the European Regional Framework for Action to Protect Health from Climate Change: A Status Report; WHO: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2015; p. 42. Available online: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/276117/Implementing-Euro-Framework-Action-protect-health-climate-change-en.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
73. National Adaptation Policy Processes in European Countries—2014; European Environment Agency (EEA): Copenhagen, Denmark, 2014; p. 130. Available online: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/national-adaptation-policy-processes (accessed on 19 May 2015).
74. Biesbrock, G.R.; Swart, R.J.; Carter, T.R.; Cowan, C.; Henrichs, T.; Mela, H.; Morecroft, M.D.; Rey, D. Europe adapts to climate change: Comparing national adaptation strategies. Global Environ. Change 2010, 10, 440–450.
75. Balbus, J.M.; Bouma, M.; Kovats, S.; LeSueur, D.; Martens, W.C.; Patz, J. Human Health. In Handbook on Methods for Climate Change Impact Assessment and Adaptation Strategies; Feenstra, J., Burton, I., Smith, J.B., Tol, R., Eds.; United Nations Environment Programme, Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1998; Version 2.0. Available online: http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/UNEPhandbookEBA2ED27–994E-4538-B0F0C424C6F619FE_tcm53–102683.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2015).
76. Negev, M. Knowledge, data and interests: Challenges in participation of diverse stakeholders in HIA. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2012, 33, 48–54.
77. Protecting Health from Climate Change: Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment; World Health Organization (WHO): Geneva, Switzerland, 2013; p. 62. Available online: http://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/vulnerability-adaptation/en/ (accessed on 19 May 2015).
78. Arnstein, S.R. A ladder of citizen participation. J. Amer. Inst. Plann. 1969, 35, 216–224.
79. Negev, M.; Davidovitch, N.; Garb, Y.; Tal, A. Stakeholder participation in health impact assessment: A multicultural approach. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2013, 43, 112–120.
80. Impacts on Health of Climate Change—Executive Summary; Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality: Madrid, Spain, 2013; p. 26. Available online: http://www.msssi.gob.es/ciudadanos/saludAmbLaboral/docs/CCResumen_ENG.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
81. Global Change Spain 2020/2050: Climate Change and Health; Complutense Center for Environmental Studies and Information: Asturias, Spain, 2012; p. 370. Available online: http://www.ccoo.es/comunes/recursos/1/doc106266_Estudio_de_cambio_climatico_y_salud.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
82. PNACC Spanish National Climate Change Adaptation Plan; Minister of Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs: Madrid, Spain, 2008; p. 20. Available online: http://www.magrama.gob.es/ es/cambio-climatico/temas/impactos-vulnerabilidad-y-adaptacion/pnacc_ing_tcm7–12473.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
83. National Prevention Plan, 2014–2018; Ministry of Health: Rome, Italy, 2014; p. 88. Available online: http://www.salute.gov.it/imgs/C_17_pubblicazioni_2285_allegato.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
84. Report on the State of Scientific Knowledge on Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in Italy; Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea: Rome, Italy, 2014; p. 878. Available online: http://www.minambiente.it/sites/default/files/archivio/allegati/clima/snacc_2014_rapporto_stato_conoscenze.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
85. Fifth National Communication under the UNFCCC; Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea: Rome, Italy, 2009; p. 236. Available online: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/ita_nc5.pdf(accessed on 19 May 2015).
86. National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy; Ministry for Resources and Rural Affairs: Floriana, Malta, 2012; p. 48. Available online: https://www.gov.mt/en/Government/Publications/Documents/MSDEC/National%20Adaptation%20Strategy.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
87. Spiteri, G. Ecosystems and infectious diseases: Possible effects of climate change on vector-borne illness. In Proceedings of the National Seminar on Health Effects of Climate Change-Raising Awareness and Building Capacity, St. Julian’s, Malta, 23 April 2009; Available online: https://ehealth.gov.mt/HealthPortal/public_health/environmental-health/policy_coord_unit/ seminars_publications.aspx (accessed on 19 May 2015).
88. Climate Change Strategy (2010–2020). Ministry of Environment and Forestry: Ankara, Turkey, 2010; p. 32. Available online: http://www.dsi.gov.tr/docs/iklim-degisikligi/ulusal_iklim_değişikliği_strateji_belgesi_eng.pdf?sfvrsn=0 (accessed on 19 May 2015).
89. National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan; Ministry of Environment and Urbanization: Ankara, Turkey, 2011; p. 123. Available online: http://www.dsi.gov.tr/docs/iklimdegisikligi/turkeys-national-climate-change-adaptation-strategy-and-action-plan.pdf?sfvrsn=2 (accessed on 19 May 2015).
90. Israel Climate Change Information Center (ICCIC) Report No. 2: Adaptation to Climate Change Policy Recommendations, Executive Summary; Ministry of Environmental Protection: Jerusalem, Israel, 2012; p. 14. Available online: http://www.sviva.gov.il/InfoServices/ReservoirInfo/DocLib2/Publications/P0701-P0800/P0732.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
91. National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction; The Egyptian Cabinet, Information & Decision Support Center: Cairo, Egypt, 2011; p. 166. Available online: http://cairoclimatetalks.net/sites/default/files/Adaptation%20Strategy%20-%20Final%20-%20E.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
92. Second National Communication under the UNFCCC; Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency: Cairo, Egypt, 2010; p. 128. Available online: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/egync2.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
93. Dias, J.C.P.; Silveira, A.C.; Schofield, C.J. The impact of chagas disease control in Latin America—A review. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2002, 97, 603–612.
94. World Malaria Report 2014; World Health Organization (WHO) Press: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014; p. 242. Available online: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2014/wmr-2014-no-profiles.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2015).
95. Gresham, L.; Ramlawi, A.; Briski, J.; Richardson, M.; Taylor, T. Trust across borders: Responding to 2009 H1N1 influenza in the Middle East. Biosecur. Bioterror. 2009, 7, doi:10.1089=bsp.2009.0034.
96. World Health Organization (WHO)—Western Pacific Region. Final Project Report: Strengthen Control of Vector-borne Diseases to Lessen the Impact of Climate Change in the Western Pacific Region with Focus on Cambodia, Mongolia and Papua New Guinea. Available online: http://www.wpro.who.int/mvp/documents/docs/KOICA_CC_VBD_project_report.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2015).
97. United Nations Environmental Program/Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP/MAP). State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment. UNEP/MAP—Barcelona Convention, Athens, 2012. Available online: http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/publications/statemedenvt_part1.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2015).
98. Horizon 2020 Mediterranean Report: Toward Shared Environmental Information Systems. EEA-UNEP/MAP Joint Report. EEA Technical Report No 6/2014. Available online: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/horizon-2020-mediterranean-report (accessed on 22 February 2015).
99. Weinthal, E.; Parag, Y. Two steps forward, one step backward: Societal capacity and Israel’s implementation of the Barcelona convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan. Glob. Environ. Polit. 2003, 3, 51–71.
100. Frantzi, S.; Lovett, J.C. Is science the driving force in the operation of environmental regimes? A case study of the Mediterranean Action Plan. Ocean. Coast. Manag. 2008, 51, 229–245.
101. Massoud, M.A.; Scrimshaw, M.D.; Lester, J.N. Qualitative assessment of the effectiveness of the Mediterranean action plan: Waste water management in the Mediterranean region. Ocean. Coast. Manag. 2003, 46, 875–899.
102. Frantzi, S.; Carter, N.T.; Lovett, J.C. Exploring discourses on international environmental regime effectiveness with Q methodology: A case study of the Mediterranean Action Plan. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 90, 177–186.
103. EpiSouth. The EpiSouth Plus Project: Final Evaluation Report 2010–2013; Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, University of Thessaly: Larissa, Greece, 2013; p. 68. Available online: http://www.episouthnetwork.org/sites/default/files/outputs/final_evaluation_report_episouth_website_1_0.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2015).
104. MediLabSecure. Preventing Vector Borne Diseases Around The Mediterranean and Black Sea Regions by Creating New Networks. Available online: http://www.medilabsecure.com/ (accessed on 19 May 2015).
105. Millennium Assessment (MA). Analytical approaches for assessing ecosystem condition and human well-being. In Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current State and Trends Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, 2nd ed.; Island Press: Washington D.C., USA, 2005; Chapter 2, Volume 1, pp. 37–71.
106. Millennium Assessment (MA). Ecosystems and vector-borne disease control. In Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Policy Responses. Findings of the Responses Working Group, 2nd ed.; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005; Chapter 12, Volume 3, pp. 353–372