Resilience strategies in the face of short- and long-term change: Out-migration and fisheries regulation in Alaskan fishing communities

Ecology and Society

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2015, Pages

  Himes Cornell, Amber ^a   Hoelting, Kristin ^b  

^a NOAA EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^b Veterinary Dentistry and Oral Surgery   (United States)

Author keywords

Alaska; Communities; Fisheries privatization; Out migration; Resilience; Well being

Indexed keywords

FISHERY MANAGEMENT; FISHING COMMUNITY; INFORMAL SECTOR; LOCAL ECONOMY; LOCAL PARTICIPATION; PRIVATE SECTOR; PRIVATIZATION;

ALASKA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84934783544     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17083087     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5751/ES-07074-200209     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Abbott, J. K., B. Garber-Yonts, and J. E. Wilen. 2010. Employment and remuneration effects of IFQs in the Bering Sea/ Aleutian Islands crab fisheries. Marine Resource Economics 25 (4):333-354. http://dx.doi.org/10.5950/0738-1360-25.4.333
2. Adger, W. N. 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change 16(3):268-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.006
3. Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development (ADL). 2013. Alaska population overview: 2012 estimates. ADL, Juneau, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://almis.labor.state.ak.us/pop/estimates/pub/12popover.pdf
4. Aleutians East Borough (AEB). 2008. Aleutia provides community protection for the city of King Cove. 29 July. AEB, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.aleutianseast.org/index.asp?Type=B_PR&SEC=%7B4625D388-43A1-4E17-A354-F5F12E4E7205%7D&DE=%7BE164DFC4-9349-48D0-93FB-D3277B0F3FEC%7D
5. Allison, E. H., and F. Ellis. 2001. The livelihoods approach and management of small-scale fisheries. Marine Policy 25:377-388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(01)00023-9
6. Andreatta, S., B. Nash, and G. B. Martin. 2011. Carteret Catch™: promoting local seafood through community and business partnerships. Human Organization 70(3):279-288.
7. Andreatta, S., and A. Parlier. 2010. The political ecology of small-scale commercial fishermen in Carteret County, North Carolina. Human Organization 69(2):180-191.
8. Bader, H. 1998. Who has the legal right to fish? Constitutional and common law in Alaska fisheries management. University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
9. Berardi, G. 1999. Schools, settlement, and sanitation in Alaska Native villages. Ethnohistory 46(2):329-359.
10. Berkes, F., and D. Jolly. 2001. Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western Arctic community. Conservation Ecology 5(2): 18. [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art18/
11. Berkes, F., and C. S. Seixas. 2005. Building resilience in lagoon social–ecological systems: a local-level perspective. Ecosystems 8:967-974. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10021-005-0140-4
12. Bjarnason, T., and T. Thorlindsson. 2006. Should I stay or should I go? Migration expectations among youth in Icelandic fishing and farming communities. Journal of Rural Studies 22:290-300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2005.09.004
13. Black, R., W. N. Adger, N. W. Arnell, S. Dercon, A. Geddes, and D. Thomas. 2011. The effect of environmental change on human migration. Global Environmental Change 21(Supplement 1):S3-S11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.001
14. Brand, F. S., and K. Jax. 2007. Focusing on meaning(s) of resilience: resilience as a descriptive concept and a boundary object. Ecology and Society 12(1): 23. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art23/
15. Brinson A., M.-Y. Lee, and B. Rountree. 2011. Direct marketing strategies: the rise of community supported fishery programs. Marine Policy 35(4):542-548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. marpol.2011.01.014
16. Carothers, C. 2008. “Rationalized out”: discourses and realities of fisheries privatization in Kodiak, Alaska. Pages 55-74 in M. E. Lowe and C. Carothers, editors. Enclosing the fisheries: people, places, and power. Symposium 68. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
17. Carothers, C. 2010. Tragedy of commodification: displacements in Alutiiq fishing communities in the Gulf of Alaska. MAST 9 (2):95-120.
18. Carothers, C. 2011. Equity and access to fishing rights: exploring the Community Quota Program in the Gulf of Alaska. Human Organization 70(3):213-223.
19. Carothers, C. 2013. A survey of US halibut IFQ holders: market participation, attitudes, and impacts. Marine Policy 38:515-522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.08.007
20. Carothers, C., and C. Chambers. 2012. Fisheries privatization and the remaking of fishery systems. Environment and Society: Advances in Research 3:39-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/ ares.2012.030104
21. Carothers, C., D. K. Lew, and J. Sepez. 2010. Fishing rights and small communities: Alaska halibut IFQ transfer patterns. Ocean & Coastal Management 53:518-523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.04.014
22. Clark, C. W. 1980. Towards a predictive model for the economic regulation of commercial fisheries. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 37(7):1111-1129.
23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/ f80-144
24. Clay, P. M. 2007. Defining fishing communities: issues in theory and practice. Annals of Anthropological Practice 28(1):27-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/napa.2007.28.1.27
25. Clay, P. M., and J. Olson. 2008. Defining “fishing communities”: vulnerability and the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Human Ecology Review 15(2):143-160.
26. Clay, P. M., P. Pinto da Silva, and A. Kitts. 2010. Defining social and economic performance measures for catch share systems in the Northeast U.S. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth Biennial Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries Economics & Trade: economics of fish resources and aquatic ecosystems: balancing uses, balancing costs (Montpellier, France, 13-16 July 2010). International Institute of Fisheries Economics & Trade, Corvallis, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/read/socialsci/pdf/publications/IIFET2010-PMC-PPDS-AK-revised%20gfish%20list.pdf
27. Clayton, K. 2014. Alaska and world seafood market expert encourages Petersburg to adapt. Petersburg Pilot 40(11), 13 March.
28. Coolidge, D. 2013. Opinion: Bristol Bay should re-examine current permit buyback program. Bristol Bay Times, 13 July. [online] URL: http://www.thebristolbaytimes.com/article/1328bristol_bay_should_re-examine_current_permit
29. Corbett, M. 2004. “It was fine, if you wanted to leave”: educational ambivalence in a Nova Scotian coastal community 1963–1998. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 35(4):451-471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aeq.2004.35.4.451
30. Corbett, M. 2005. Rural education and out-migration: the case of a coastal community. Canadian Journal of Education 28 (1/2):52-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1602153
31. Costello, C., S. D. Gaines, and J. Lynham. 2008. Can catch shares prevent fisheries collapse? Science 321(5896):1678-1681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1159478
32. Coulthard, S. 2012. Can we be both resilient and well, and what choices do people have? Incorporating agency into the resilience debate from a fisheries perspective. Ecology and Society 17(1): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04483-170104
33. Davidson, D. J. 2010. The applicability of the concept of resilience to social systems: some sources of optimism and nagging doubts. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 23 (12):1135-1149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941921003652940
34. Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development (DCCED). 2009. Alaska’s rural population and school population trends: a discussion of its components. Report 1. DCCED, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dcra/pub/rural_to_urban_migration2.pdf
35. Donkersloot, R. 2005. Ecological crisis, social change and the life paths of young Alaskans: an analysis of the impacts of shifting patterns in human-environment interactions in the fisheries dependent region of Bristol Bay, Alaska. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA.
36. Donkersloot, R. 2006. Downloading the death knell? Negotiating capital, resource and reason in B.C. fisheries. Ethnographic Field School, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
37. Ecology Action Centre (EAC). 2013. Social impact investing for sustainable fishing communities: workshop report. Report No. eac-062. EAC, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
38. Emery, M., and C. Flora. 2006. Spiraling-up: mapping community transformation with community capitals framework. Community Development 37(1):19-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15575330609490152
39. Etuk, L., M. Keen, and C. Wall. 2012. The factors associated with rural community success: a review of rural community vitality research. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
40. Fina, M. 2011. Evolution of catch share management: lessons from catch share management in the North Pacific. Fisheries 36 (4):164-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2011.564509
41. Folke, C., S. R. Carpenter, B. Walker, M. Scheffer, T. Chapin, and J. Rockström. 2010. Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and Society 15(4): 20. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art20/
42. Fowler, K., and H. Etchegary. 2008. Economic crisis and social capital: the story of two rural fishing communities. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 81:319-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/096317907X226972
43. Ginter, J. J. C. 1995. The Alaska community development quota fisheries management program. Ocean & Coastal Management 28 (1-3):147-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0964-5691(95)00069-0
44. Ginter, J. J. C., and B. Muse. 2003. Rights-based fishery management systems in marine fisheries off Alaska. In Proceedings of the Eleventh Biennial Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade: fisheries in the global economy (Wellington, New Zealand, 19-22 August 2002). International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
45. Gordon, H. S. 1954. The economic theory of a common-property resource: the fishery. Journal of Political Economy 62(2):124-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/257497
46. Graton, R. Q., D. Squires, and J. E. Kirkley. 1996. Private property rights and crises in world fisheries: turning the tide? Contemporary Economic Policy 14(4):90-99.
47. Greer, J. 1995. The big business takeover of US fisheries: privatizing the oceans through individual transferable quotas (ITQs). Greenpeace, Washington, D.C., USA.
48. Hadland, J. 2004. Alaska’s ‘brain drain’: myth or reality? Monthly Labor Review 127(5):9-22.
49. Hamilton, L. C., C. R. Colocousis, and S. T. F. Johansen. 2004. Migration from resource depletion: the case of the Faroe Islands. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 17 (5):443-453. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920490430232
50. Hamilton, L. C., and R. L. Haedrich. 1999. Ecological and population changes in fishing communities of the North Atlantic Arc. Polar Research 18(2):383-388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-8369.1999.tb00318.x
51. Hamilton, L. C., and O. Otterstad. 1998. Demographic change and fisheries dependence in the northern Atlantic. Human Ecology Review 5(2):16-22.
52. Haynie, A. C. 2014. Changing usage and value in the Western Alaska Community Development Quota (CDQ) Program. Fisheries Science 80(2):181-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s12562-014-0723-0
53. Healey, M. C. 2009. Resilient salmon, resilient fisheries for British Columbia, Canada. Ecology and Society 14(1): 2. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss1/art2/
54. Hilborn, R. 2007. Defining success in fisheries and conflicts in objectives. Marine Policy 31:153-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2006.05.014
55. Himes-Cornell, A., K. Hoelting, C. Maguire, L. Munger-Little, J. Lee, J. Fisk, R. Felthoven, C. Geller, and P. Little, P. 2013. Community profiles for North Pacific Fisheries - Alaska. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-259, Volumes 1-12. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Washington, D.C., USA. [online] URL: http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/publications/afsc-tm/noaa-tm-afsc-259/ noaa-tm-afsc-259-complete.pdf
56. Holling, C. S., and L. H. Gunderson. 2002. Resilience and adaptive cycles. Pages 25-62 in L. H. Gunderson and C. S. Holling, editors. Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island, Washington, D.C., USA.
57. Homan, F. 2007. State limited entry. Presented at Alaska Young Fishermen’s Summit: weaving a network of future fishing leaders (25-26 January 2007). Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, State of Alaska, Juneau, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.cfec.state.ak.us/pregs/StateLimitedEntry.pdf
58. Howe, E. L. 2009. Patterns of migration in Arctic Alaska. Polar Geography 32(1-2):69-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10889370903000422
59. Huskey, L. 2009. Community migration in Alaska’s north: the places people stay and the places they leave. Polar Geography 32 (1-2):17-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10889370903000448
60. Huskey, L., M. Berman, and A. Hill. 2004. Leaving home, returning home: migration as a labor market choice for Alaska Natives. Annals of Regional Science 38:75-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00168-003-0141-1
61. Jentoft, S. 2000. The community: a missing link of fisheries management. Marine Policy 24:53-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(99)00009-3
62. Kasperski, S., and D. S. Holland. 2013. Income diversification and risk for fishermen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(6):2076-2081. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212278110
63. Keck, M., and P. Sakdapolrak. 2013. What is social resilience? Lessons learned and ways forward. Erdkunde 67(1):5-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2013.01.02
64. Kelty, R., and R. Kelty. 2011. Human dimensions of a fishery at a crossroads: resource valuation, identity, and way of life in a seasonal fishing community. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 24(4):334-348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903476814
65. Kirmayer, L. J., M. Sehdev, R. Whitley, S. F. Dandeneau, and C. Isaac. 2009. Community resilience: models, metaphors and measures. Journal of Aboriginal Health 5:62-117.
66. Klingert, L. 2007. Commercial fishing and agriculture bank. Pages 91-93 in P. Cullenberg, editor. Alaska’s fishing communities: harvesting the future. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska Sea Grant College Program, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.
67. Klingert, L. E. 2012. Letter from the Alaska Commercial Fishing and Agricultural Bank (CFAB) to the Finance Committee,
68. Alaska House of Representatives regarding HB 261, 25 January 2012. CFAB, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.legis.state.ak.us/basis/get_documents.asp?session=27&docid=10485
69. Knapp, G. 2007. The Chignik salmon cooperative: a case study of allocation to a voluntary self-governance organization. Working Paper. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
70. Knapp, G. 2011. Local permit ownership in Alaska salmon fisheries. Marine Policy 35(5):658-666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.02.006
71. Langdon, S. J. 1995. Increments, ranges, and thresholds: human population responses to climate change in northern Alaska. Pages 139-154 in D. L. Peterson and D. R. Johnson, editors. Human ecology and climate change: people and resources in the Far North. Taylor and Francis, Washington, D.C., USA.
72. Langdon, S. J. 2008. The Community Quota Program in the Gulf of Alaska: a vehicle for Alaska Native village sustainability. Pages 155-194 in M. E. Lowe and C. Carothers, editors. Enclosing the fisheries: people, places, and power. Symposium 68. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
73. Larson, E., and T. Hull. 1999. Gulf of Alaska coastal communities: an overview. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
74. Lowe, M. E. 2008. Crab rationalization and potential community impacts of vertical integration in Alaska’s fisheries. Pages 119-154 in M. E. Lowe and C. Carothers, editors. Enclosing the fisheries: people, places, and power. Symposium 68. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
75. Lowe, M. E. 2012. Alaska coastal community youth and the future. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
76. Macinko, S. 1993. Public or private: United States commercial fisheries management and the public trust doctrine, reciprocal challenges. Natural Resources Journal 33:919-955.
77. Magis, K. 2010. Community resilience: an indicator of social sustainability. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 23(5):401-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903305674
78. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006. Definitions: fishing community. 16 U.S.C. 1802 § 3(17).
79. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006. National Standard 8. 16 U.S.C. § 1851(a)(8).
80. Mansfield, B. 2004. Neoliberalism in the oceans: “rationalization,” property rights, and the commons question. Geoforum 35 (3):313-326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.05.002
81. Mantua, N., and R. C. Francis. 2004. Natural climate insurance for Pacific Northwest salmon: finding our way through the entangled bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium 43:121-134.
82. Marschke, M., and F. Berkes. 2006. Exploring strategies that build livelihood resilience: a case from Cambodia. Ecology and Society 11(1): 42.
83. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art42/
84. Marshall, N. A., D. M. Fenton, P. A. Marshall, and S. G. Sutton. 2007. How resource dependency can influence social resilience within a primary resource industry. Rural Sociology 72 (3):359-390.
85. Marshall, N. A., and P. A. Marshall. 2007. Conceptualizing and operationalizing social resilience within commercial fisheries in northern Australia. Ecology and Society 12(1): 1. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art1/
86. Martin, I. E. 2008. Resilience in Lower Columbia River salmon communities. Ecology and Society 13(2): 23. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art23/
87. Martin, S. 2009. The effects of female out-migration on Alaska villages. Polar Geography 32(1-2):61-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10889370903000455
88. Martin, S., M. Killorin, and S. Colt. 2008. Fuel costs, migration, and community viability: final report. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
89. Martin-Breen, P., and J. M. Anderies. 2011. Resilience: a literature review. Rockefeller Foundation, New York, New York, USA. [online] URL: http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/blog/resilience-literature-review
90. McLeman, R. A. 2011. Settlement abandonment in the context of global environmental change. Global Environmental Change 21 (Supplement 1):S108-S120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. gloenvcha.2011.08.004
91. Mederer, H. J., and C. Barker. 2000. Reconstructing identities, families, communities, and futures in the wake of fisheries regulation. Pages 69-81 in S. Hanna and M. Hall-Arber, editors. Change and resilience in fishing. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
92. Morrissey, M. T. 2008. Global resources and market impacts on US Pacific Northwest fisheries. Globalization 5(2):195-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14747730802057571
93. Morrow Bay Community Quota Fund (MBCQF). 2014. Home. 10 July. MBCQF, Morrow Bay, California, USA. [online] URL: http://www.morrobaycommunityquotafund.org/
94. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2008. National Standard 8: communities. 50 C.F.R. Ch. VI (10–1–02 edition) § 600.345(b)(3).
95. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2014. Table 21 to part 679–eligible communities, Halibut IFQ Regulatory Area location, community governing body that recommends the CQE, and the fishing programs and associated areas where a CQE representing an eligible community may be permitted to participate. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, Washington, D.C., USA. [online] URL: https://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov/rr/tables/tabl21.pdf
96. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA). 2011. 50 CFR Part 679. Fisheries of the exclusive economic zone off Alaska; groundfish of the Gulf of Alaska; amendment 88. Federal Register 76(248):81248-81293.
97. National Research Council (NRC). 1999. The Community Development Quota Program in Alaska. National Academy, Washington, D.C., USA.
98. New England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC). 2010. Amendment 15 to the scallop fishery management plan. NEFMC, Newbury Port, Massachusetts, USA. [online] URL: http://archive.nefmc.org/scallops/planamen/a15/110111%20A15_FEIS_final% 20.pdf
99. North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC). 2002. Regulatory impact review/initial regulatory flexibility analysis: public review draft for proposed amendment 71 to the fishery management plan for Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish to implement policy and administrative changes to the Western Alaska Community Development Program. NPFMC, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
100. North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC). 2007. Aleutian Islands fishery ecosystem plan: December 2007. NPFMC, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.npfmc.org/wp-content/PDFdocuments/conservation_issues/AIFEP/AIFEP12_07. pdf
101. North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC). 2010. Review of the Community Quota Entity (CQE) Program under the halibut/sablefish IFQ Program. NPFMC, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://www.npfmc.org/wp-content/PDFdocuments/halibut/CQEreport210.pdf
102. Olson, J. 2011. Understanding and contextualizing social impacts from the privatization of fisheries: an overview. Ocean & Coastal Management 54:353-363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2011.02.002
103. Olson, J., P. M. Clay, and P. Pinto da Silva. 2014. Putting the seafood in sustainable food systems. Marine Policy 43:104-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.05.001
104. Package-Ward, C., and A. Himes-Cornell. 2014. Utilizing oral histories to understand the social networks of Oregon fishermen in Alaska. Human Organization 73(3):277-288.
105. Pinkerton, E., and D. N. Edwards. 2009. The elephant in the room: the hidden costs of leasing individual transferable fishing quotas. Marine Policy 33(4):707-713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. marpol.2009.02.004
106. Pollnac, R. B., and J. J. Poggie. 2006. Job satisfaction in the fishery in two southeast Alaskan towns. Human Organization 65 (3):329-339.
107. Pollnac, R. B., and J. J. Poggie. 2008. Happiness, well-being and psychocultural adaptation to the stresses associated with marine fishing. Human Ecology Review 15(2):194-200.
108. Portes, A. 1998. Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology 24:1-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1
109. Randall, S., and N. Grader. 2009. Community fishing associations: a new way forward. Fishermen’s News, March 2009. Pacific Coast Federation of Fisherman’s Associations, San Francisco, California, USA. [online] URL: http://www.pcffa.org/ fn-mar09.htm
110. Reedy-Maschner, K. L. 2008. Eastern Aleut society under three decades of limited entry. Pages 13-34 in M. E. Lowe and C. Carothers, editors. Enclosing the fisheries: people, places, and power. Symposium 68. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
111. Reedy-Maschner, K. L., and H. D. G. Maschner. 2013. Sustaining Sanak Island, Alaska: a cultural land trust. Sustainability 5:4406-4427. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su5104406
112. Rice, S. 2006. How to make a directed transfer of your fishing business. Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: https://seagrant.uaf.edu/map/fishbiz/pubs/directedtransfer.pdf
113. Robards, M., and L. Alessa. 2004. Timescapes of community resilience and vulnerability in the circumpolar North. Arctic 57 (4):415-427. http://dx.doi.org/10.14430/arctic518
114. Robards, M. D., and J. A. Greenberg. 2007. Global constraints on rural fishing communities: whose resilience is it anyway? Fish and Fisheries 8:14-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2007.00231. x
115. Robson, J. P., and P. K. Nayak. 2010. Rural out-migration and resource-dependent communities in Mexico and India. Population and Environment 32:263-284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11111-010-0121-1
116. Rolfe, R. E. 2006. Social cohesion and community resilience: a multi-disciplinary review of literature for rural health research. Rural Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
117. Rosvold, E. 2007. Graying of the fleet: community impacts from asset transfers. Pages 67-72 in P. Cullenberg, editor. Alaska’s fishing communities: harvesting the future. Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.
118. Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J. A. Foley, C. Folke, and B. Walker. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591-596. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35098000
119. Scott, A. 1955. The fishery: the objectives of sole ownership. Journal of Political Economy 63:116-124. http://dx.doi. org/10.1086/257653
120. Simeon, W. E., L. C. Naves, M. E. Lowe, G. Stickwan, E. M. Valentine, and J. Brady. 2011. Cultural models of Copper River salmon fisheries. Technical Paper No. 351. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Anchorage, Alaska, USA. [online] URL: http://doc.nprb.org/web/08_prjs/823_final%20report_ADGF%20Technical%20Paper.pdf
121. Stockdale, A. 2004. Rural out-migration: community consequences and individual migrant experiences. Sociologia Ruralis 44(2):167-194.
122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2004.00269. x
123. Stoll, J. S., and M. C. Holliday. 2014. The design and use of fishing community and regional fishery association entities in limited access privilege programs. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/ SPO-138. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Washington, D.C., USA.
124. Turner, B. L., R. E. Kasperson, P. A. Matson, J. J. McCarthy, R. W. Corell, L. Christensen, N. Eckley, J. X. Kasperson, A. Luers, M. L. Martello, C. Polsky, A. Pulsipher, and A. Schiller. 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(14):8074-8079. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1231335100
125. U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). 2004. Individual fishing quotas: methods for community protection and new entry require periodic evaluation. Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO-04-277. GAO, Washington, D.C., USA.
126. Walker, B., C. S. Holling, S. R. Carpenter, and A. Kinzig. 2004. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 9(2): 5. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/
127. Washburn, M. 2001. Direct marketing of seafood: a fisherman’s perspective. In Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade: microbehavior and macroresults (Corvallis, Oregon, 10-14 July 2000). International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
128. Windle, M. J. S., B. Neis, S. Bornstein, M. Binkley, and P. Navarro. 2008. Fishing occupational health and safety: a comparison of regulatory regimes and safety outcomes in six countries. Marine Policy 32(4):701-710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2007.12.003
129. Winkler, R., C. Cheng, and S. Golding. 2012. Boom or bust? Population dynamics in natural resource-dependent counties. Pages 349-367 in L. J. Kulcsár and K. J. Curtis, editors. International handbook of rural demography. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1842-5_24
130. Wrathall, D. J. 2012. Migration amidst social-ecological regime shift: the search for stability in Garífuna villages of northern Honduras. Human Ecology 40(4):583-596. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s10745-012-9501-8
131. Yandle, T., and C. M. Dewees. 2003. Privatizing the commons twelve years later: fishers’ experiences with New Zealand’s market-based fisheries management. Pages 101-128 in N. Dolšak and E. Ostrom, editors. The Commons in the new millennium: challenges and adaptations. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.