The most segregated city in America": City planning and civil rights in Birmingham, 1920-1980

The Most Segregated City in America": City Planning and Civil Rights in Birmingham, 1920-1980

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 1-360

  Connerly, Charles E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84929028555     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (663)

1. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997);.
2. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home, Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
3. John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987);.
4. June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997);.
5. Arnold Hirsch, Making of the Second Ghetto, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998);.
6. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
7. Yale Rabin, "Expulsive Zoning: The Inequitable Legacy of Euclid," in Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep, ed. Charles M. Haar and Jerold S. Kayden, 101-21 (Chicago: Planners Press, 1989);.
8. Charles Haar, Suburbs under Siege: Race, Space, and Audacious Judges (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
9. Martin Luther King Jr., Why We Can't Wait (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 43.
10. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 312.
11. Bobby Wilson, America's Johannesburg (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000);.
12. Eskew, "Bombingham," in But for Birmingham; "Fear and Hatred Grip Birmingham," New York Times, April 12, 1960;.
13. "Birmingham: Integration's Hottest Crucible," Time, December 15, 1958.
14. Henry M. McKiven Jr., Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 171.
15. Christopher Silver, "The Racial Origins of Zoning: Southern Cities from 1910-1940," Planning Perspectives 6 (1991): 189-205.
16. Raymond A. Mohl, "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960," in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1997), 63.
17. Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965).
18. Joe Feagin, "Arenas of Conflict: Zoning and Land Use Reform in Critical Political-Economic Perspective," in Zoning and the American Dream, ed. Haar and Kayden, 84-89;.
19. Haar, Suburbs under Siege, 8-9, 15-16.
20. H. M. Caldwell, History of the Elyton Land Company and Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham: self-published, 1892), 3-4;.
21. Marjorie Longenecker White, The Birmingham District: An Industrial History and Guide (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1981), 36-37;.
22. Martha Carolyn Mitchell, "Birmingham: Biography of a City of the New South" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1946), 18.
23. Warren H. Manning, City Plan of Birmingham (Birmingham, 1919).
24. The Survey, January 6, 1912, 1449-556.
25. Philip A. Morris and Marjorie Longenecker White, eds., Designs on Birmingham: A Landscape History of a Southern City and Its Suburbs (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1989), 51;.
26. Edward LaMonte, Politics and Welfare in Birmingham: 1900-1975 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), 12.
27. Birmingham Post, July 13, 1926.
28. Charles E. Connerly, "Federal Urban Policy and the Birth of Democratic Planning in Birmingham, Alabama: 1949-1974," in Planning the Twentieth-Century American City, ed. Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
29. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
30. W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994), 24;.
31. Marjorie Longenecker White, The Birmingham District: An Industrial History and Guide (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1981), 36-37.
32. Marvin Whiting, "James R. Powell and 'This Magic Little City of Ours': A Perspective on Local History," Journal of the Birmingham Historical Society 8 (1983): 39.
33. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 21-22, 32-33, 47-48, 50-57;.
34. Ethel Armes, The Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (Birmingham: Chamber of Commerce, 1910), 111-20.
35. John T. Milner, Report of the Chief Engineer to the President and Board of Directors of the South and North Alabama Railroad Co., on the 26th of November 1859 (Montgomery: Advertiser Steam Printing House, 1859), 13.
36. Armes, Story of Coal, 77-78;.
37. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 20.
38. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 83;.
39. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 197.
40. John W. DuBose, ed. The Mineral Wealth of Alabama and Birmingham Illustrated (Birmingham: N. T. Green and Co., 1886), 109.
41. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 85;.
42. Jonathan M. Wiener, Social Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 159-60;.
43. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 187.
44. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 71;.
45. U.S. Senate, Report of the Committee of the Senate upon the Relations between Labor and Capital, vol. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885), 288.
46. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 91.
47. DuBose, Mineral Wealth, 109.
48. Robert J. Norrell and Otis Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community (Birmingham: Birmingfind, n.d.), 1-2.
49. Harris, Political Power, 34.
50. U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1925 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926), 42-45.
51. Atkins, and Wayne Flynt, Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994), 413;.
52. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home, Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 36-37.
53. Armes, Story of Coal, 361-62;.
54. White, Birmingham District, 92;.
55. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 299.
56. Armes, Story of Coal, 515;.
57. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 290;.
58. Woodward, New South, 300.
59. Armes, Story of Coal, 516-19;.
60. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 290-93;.
61. Woodward, New South, 300-301.
62. Harris, Political Power, 59-89.
63. Irving Beiman, "Birmingham: Steel Giant with a Glass Jaw," in Our Fair City, ed. Robert S. Allen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1947), 118.
64. Louisville Courier-Journal, January 1, 1939.
65. Harris, Political Power, 145.
66. U.S. Department of Commerce, Compendium of City Government Finances in 1952 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1953).
67. Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham, Alabama," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 669-94.
68. William A. Nunnelley, Bull Connor (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991), 12-17;.
69. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 37-39.
70. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 118-19.
71. Beiman, "Birmingham," 117-18;.
72. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 90-91;.
73. Leah Rawls Atkins, "Senator James A. Simpson and Birmingham Politics of the 1930s: His Fight against the Spoilsmen and the Pie-Men," Alabama Review 41 (1988): 3-29.
74. Nunnelley, Bull Connor, 29;.
75. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 593 n. 39.
76. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 87-89, 119.
77. Paul B. Worthman, "Working-Class Mobility in Birmingham, Alabama, 1880-1914," in Anonymous Americans, ed. Tamara K. Hareven (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), 203-7.
78. Martha Carolyn Mitchell, "Birmingham: Biography of a City" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1946), 67;.
79. Lewis, Sloss Furnaces, 307.
80. Blaine A. Brownell, "Birmingham, Alabama: New South City in the 1920s," Journal of Southern History 38 (1972): 28-29.
81. Birmingham World, August 12, 1949.
82. Armes, Story of Coal, 234.
83. Worthman, "Working-Class Mobility," 197-201;.
84. Mitchell, "Birmingham: Biography of a City," 67;.
85. Henry M. McKiven, Iron and Steel (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 57-58.
86. Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities (New York: Atheneum, 1972), 39-40, 190.
87. Barbara Nunn, ed., Like It Ain't Never Passed: Remembering Life in Sloss Quarters (Birmingham: Sloss Furnaces National Historic Landmark, 1985).
88. Will Prather, interview in Nunn, Like It Ain't Never Passed, 3-4.
89. Will Prather and Jeffrey Rush, interviews in Nunn, Like It Ain't Never Passed, 1-4.
90. Birmingham News, October 13, 1912.
91. United States Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, Immigrants in Industries, pt. 2, Iron and Steel Manufacturing (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1911), 2:187.
92. Knowles, "Water and Waste," 1489.
93. W. M. McGrath, "Conservation of Health," The Survey, January 6, 1912, 1510.
94. Harris, Political Power, 238-39.
95. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 21, 1916, July 25, 1916, July 28, 1916, March 13, 1918, June 7, 1918, June 3, 1918;.
96. Birmingham News, January 15, 1918.
97. Birmingham Age-Herald, January 7, 1920.
98. Birmingham News, January 11, 1920.
99. Harris, Political Power, 180.
100. Graham Romeyn Taylor, "Birmingham's Civic Front," The Survey, January 6, 1912, 1467;.
101. George H. Miller, "Fairfield, A Town with a Purpose," The American City: A Monthly Review of Municipal Problems and Civic Betterment (September 1913): 213-19.
102. White, Birmingham District, 122.
103. Marlene Hunt Rikard, "An Experiment in Welfare Capitalism: The Health Care Services of the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company" (PhD diss., University of Alabama, 1983), 75-122;.
104. White, Birmingham District, 256-60.
105. Knowles, "Water and Waste," 1489.
106. McKiven, Iron and Steel, 137.
107. Rikard, "An Experiment in Welfare," 323-27.
108. J. D. Dowling and F. A. Bean, Final Statistical Report of Surveys of the Blighted Areas, Birmingham, Alabama, Showing Some Comparative Figures for the Years, 1933 and 1935, Jefferson County, Alabama Board of Health, 1937, 5-6;.
109. U.S. Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932).
110. Nolan, Social and Economic Survey.
111. Lynne Feldman, A Sense of Place: Birmingham's Black Middle-Class Community, 1890-1930 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999).
112. Feldman, A Sense of Place, 174;.
113. Angela Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (New York: International Publishers, 1974), 87-92;.
114. Norrell and Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community.
115. New South Associates and John Milner Associates, "More Than What We Had": An Architectural and Historical Documentation of the Village Creek Project Neighborhoods, Birmingham, Alabama (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Technical Report, November 27, 1989), 22-40;.
116. Marjorie L. White and Carter L. Hudgins, Village Creek: An Architectural and Historical Resources Survey of Ensley, East Birmingham and East Lake, Three Village Creek Neighborhoods (Birmingham Historical Society, 1985), 71-72.
117. New South Associates and John Milner Associates, "More Than What We Had," 89-90.
118. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 97-102.
119. Edward LaMonte, Politics and Welfare in Birmingham, 1900-1975 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), 12.
120. Carl Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 167.
121. Birmingham World, May 29, 1942.
122. LaMonte, Politics and Welfare, 12.
123. Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, 100-101;.
124. Roger L. Rice, "Residential Segregation by Law, 1910-1917," Journal of Southern History 34 (1968): 181;.
125. Christopher Silver, "The Racial Origins of Zoning: Southern Cities from 1910-1940," Planning Perspectives 6 (1991): 192-95.
126. Rice, "Residential Segregation," 180-81;.
127. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 192-93;.
128. Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, 100.
129. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 193;.
130. Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 111.
131. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 194-95.
132. Rice, "Residential Segregation," 184.
133. Lynne Feldman, A Sense of Place: Birmingham's Black Middle-Class Community, 1890-1930 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 48.
134. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 193;.
135. Rice, "Residential Segregation," 189.
136. Birmingham Age-Herald,March 18, 1916.
137. Carl V. Harris, "Reforms in Government Control of Negroes in Birmingham, Alabama, 1890-1920," Journal of Southern History 38 (1972): 571.
138. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 189-205.
139. Yale Rabin, "Expulsive Zoning: The Inequitable Legacy of Euclid," in Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep, ed. Charles M. Haar and Jerold S. Kayden (Washington, D.C.: American Planning Association Press, 1989), 103-6;.
140. Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962), 229-45.
141. Blaine A. Brownell, The Urban Ethos in the South, 1920-1930 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 182.
142. Warren H. Manning, City Plan of Birmingham (Birmingham, 1919).
143. Manning, City Plan of Birmingham, 30-32;.
144. Harris, Political Power, 166;.
145. Olmsted Brothers, A System of Parks and Playgrounds for Birmingham (Birmingham: Park and Recreation Board of Birmingham, 1925).
146. Harland Bartholomew and Associates, The Comprehensive Plan: Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham, 1961), 119.
147. Birmingham News, June 15, 1920.
148. Harris, Political Power, 42, 238-39.
149. Birmingham Age-Herald, November 3, 1920.
150. Birmingham News, November 9, 1920.
151. Birmingham Age-Herald, February 4, 1923.
152. Birmingham News, January 19, 1923.
153. Birmingham Age-Herald, June 16, 23, 1923.
154. Birmingham Reporter, January 20, 1923;.
155. Wilson Fallin Jr., "A Shelter in the Storm: The African American Church in Birmingham, Alabama, 1815-1963" (PhD diss., University of Alabama, 1995), 68, 70, 160;.
156. Robert J. Norrell and Otis Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community (Birmingham: Birmingfind, n.d.).
157. Birmingham Reporter, January 13, 1923.
158. Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967;.
159. Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography (New York: Pantheon, 1994), 90-92;.
160. Blaine Brownell, "Birmingham: New South City," Journal of Southern History 38 (1972): 39-40.
161. Dorothy Autrey, "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Alabama, 1913-1952" (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 1985), 65.
162. Rice, "Residential Segregation," 182-88.
163. Autrey, "The NAACP in Alabama," 64-69, 121-41;.
164. Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 80.
165. Harris, Political Power, 58;.
166. Autrey, "The NAACP in Alabama," 138;.
167. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe, 182-84.
168. William M. Randle, "Professors, Reformers, Bureaucrats, and Cronies: The Players in Euclid v. Ambler," in Zoning and the American Dream, ed. Charles M. Haar and Jerold S. Kayden (Chicago: Planners Press, 1989), 38-39, 42.
169. Mel Scott, American City Planning since 1890 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 194.
170. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 197-98.
171. Birmingham News,March 29, 1925.
172. Birmingham Post, July 13, 1926.
173. Birmingham, The General Code of City of Birmingham Alabama of 1930, Ordinance 1101-C.
174. Birmingham News, December 2, 1926.
175. George D. Hott, "Constitutionality of Municipal Zoning and Segregation Ordinances," West Virginia Law Quarterly 33 (1927): 349.
176. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 196;.
177. Raymond A. Mohl, "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960," in Urban Planning and the African American Community, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997), 72 n. 5.
178. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 191.
179. Walter White, "The Supreme Court and the N.A.A.C.P.," The Crisis, May 1927, 83, 99-100.
180. Silver, "The Racial Origins," 197;.
181. Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond, 112.
182. Feldman, A Sense of Place, 26.
183. White and Hudgins, Village Creek: An Architectural and Historical Resources Survey of Ensley, East Birmingham and East Lake (Birmingham Historical Society, 1985), 43.
184. Leavy W. Oliver, "Zoning Ordinances in Relation to Segregated Negro Housing in Birmingham, Alabama" (master's thesis, Indiana University, 1951), 66.
185. Olmsted Brothers, A System of Parks, 18.
186. White and Hudgins, Village Creek, 45, 102.
187. Philip A. Morris and Marjorie L. White, Designs on Birmingham: A Landscape History of a Southern City and Its Suburbs (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1989), 50-51.
188. White and Hudgins, Village Creek, 12;.
189. Birmingham Age-Herald, September 26, 1926.
190. White and Hudgins, Village Creek, 13.
191. Birmingham News,March 13, 1997.
192. Rabin, "Expulsive Zoning," 102.
193. Birmingham World, August 20, 1946.
194. Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 101.
195. Norrell and Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community;.
196. Radford, Modern Housing, 100-105.
197. Norrell and Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community;.
198. Feldman, A Sense of Place, 34-35.
199. J. D. Dowling and F. A. Bean, Final Statistical Report of Surveys of the Blighted Areas, Birmingham, Alabama, Jefferson County Board of Health, 1937, 30-34.
200. J. D. Dowling, Analysis of Family Study for Federal Low-Cost Housing Project for Negroes, Birmingham, Alabama, November 28, 1934, 122.
201. Birmingham News, November 20, 1935;.
202. Birmingham Post, November 29, 1935.
203. Birmingham News,March 29, 1925.
204. Birmingham Age-Herald, November 30, 1935.
205. Birmingham News, November 30, 1935.
206. Birmingham Age-Herald, November 13, 1935.
207. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe, 124, 134.
208. Anthony Downs, Neighborhoods and Urban Development (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981).
209. Birmingham Post, July 13, 1926.
210. Downs, Neighborhoods and Urban Development, 94.
211. United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population: Birmingham, Alabama, Census Tract Statistics (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952).
212. Robert J. Norrell and Otis Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community (Birmingham: Birmingfind, n.d.).
213. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940 and Seventeenth Census of the United States: 1950.
214. Dorothy Autrey, "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Alabama, 1913-1952" (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 1985), 121-41, 206-8.
215. Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 222, 226.
216. Birmingham World, July 29, 1947;.
217. Glenn Eskew, "But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle" (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1993), 132;.
218. Lynda Dempsey Cochran, "Arthur Davis Shores: Advocate for Freedom" (master's thesis, Georgia Southern College, 1977).
219. Leavy Oliver, "Zoning Ordinances in Relation to Segregated Negro Housing in Birmingham, Alabama" (master's thesis, Indiana University, 1951), 27-28;.
220. Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983);.
221. Raymond A. Mohl, "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory,'" in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997), 62-63;.
222. William H. Wilson, Hamilton Park: A Planned Black Community in Dallas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 25-26, 42;.
223. Birmingham Post, March 24, 1949.
224. Birmingham News,March 22, 1949.
225. Birmingham News, March 22, 1949;.
226. Birmingham Post-Herald, March 22, 1949;.
227. Birmingham News,March 25, 1949.
228. Birmingham News,March 25, 1949.
229. Birmingham News,May 23, 1949, June 1, 1949.
230. Frank Sikora, Until Justice Rolls Down: The Birmingham Church Bombing Case (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991), 82-83.
231. Elizabeth H. Cobbs and Petric J. Smith, Long Time Coming: An Insider's Story of the Birmingham Church Bombing That Rocked the World (Birmingham: Crane Hill Publishers, 1994), 52;.
232. Birmingham Age-Herald,May 1, 1950.
233. Cobbs and Smith, Long Time Coming, 61, 70.
234. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home, Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 73.
235. Sikora, Until Justice Rolls, 78.
236. Howell Raines, My Soul Is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking Penguin, 1983), 168.
237. Sikora, Until Justice Rolls, 154.
238. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 72-75, 598 n. 75.
239. Birmingham News, June 1, 1949;.
240. Birmingham Age-Herald, June 1, 1949.
241. Birmingham News, June 6, 1949.
242. Christopher Silver and John V. Moeser, The Separate City (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1995), 136-44;.
243. Frederick Allen, Atlanta Rising (Marietta, Ga.: Longstreet Press, 1996), 92-93.
244. Birmingham World, July 19, 1949.
245. Birmingham World, August 9, 1949.
246. Birmingham Age-Herald, June 2, 1949;.
247. Birmingham News, June 2, 1949;.
248. Birmingham News, August 13, 1949.
249. Birmingham News, August 9, 1949.
250. Birmingham News, August 9, 1949.
251. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 24, 1949.
252. Birmingham Post, August 9, 1949.
253. Birmingham World, August 12, 1949;.
254. Birmingham News, December 12, 1949.
255. Birmingham News, December 13, 1949;.
256. Glenn Feldman, From Demagogue to Dixiecrat: Horace Wilkinson and the Politics of Race (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1995).
257. Birmingham News, December 14, 1949.
258. "Constitutionality of Segregation Ordinances," Michigan Law Review 35 (1917-18): 111.
259. Major Gardner, "Race Segregation in Cities," Kentucky Law Journal 29 (1940-41): 214, 219.
260. Arthur T. Martin, "Segregation of Residence of Negroes," Michigan Law Review 32 (1934): 721-42;.
261. George D. Hott, "Constitutionally of Municipal Zoning and Segregation Ordinances," West Virginia Law Quarterly 33 (1927): 332-49.
262. Mohl, "The Second Ghetto," 64-71.
263. City of Birmingham v. Monk, 185 F.2d 859, 862.
264. Birmingham News,May 28, 1951.
265. Eskew, "But for Birmingham," 140-73.
266. Mel Scott, American City Planning since 1890 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 492-504.
267. Irving Beiman, "Birmingham: Steel Giant with a Glass Jaw," in Our Fair City, ed. Robert S. Allen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1947), 119-20.
268. Lawrence M. Friedman, Government and Slum Housing: A Century of Frustration (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968), 3-24.
269. Birmingham Age-Herald, December 25, 1949.
270. Howard L. Holley, "Medical Education in Alabama," Alabama Review 7 (1954): 261-62;.
271. Virginia E. Fisher, Building on a Vision: A Fifty-Year Retrospective of UAB's Academic Health Center (Birmingham: University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1995).
272. Robert Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony: Race Relations in Birmingham, Alabama, 1947-1963" (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 1979), 67-68;.
273. Negro Hospital Fund Drive, "Who, What, When and Why of the Negro Hospital Fund Drive," January 28, 1950, 11.
274. Mitchell, "Birmingham: Biography of a City" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1946), 67;.
275. Paul B. Worthman, "Working-Class Mobility in Birmingham, Alabama, 1880-1914," in Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History, ed. Tamara Hareven, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1971), 200-206.
276. W. M. McGrath, "Conservation of Health," The Survey, January 6, 1912, 1507, 1509, 1511.
277. J. D. Dowling and F. A. Bean, Final Statistical Report of Surveys of the Blighted Areas, Birmingham, Alabama, Showing Some Comparative Figures for the Years, 1933 and 1935, Jefferson County, Alabama Board of Health, 1937.
278. George A. Denison, Health as an Indication of Housing Needs in Birmingham, Alabama, and Recommendations for Slum Clearance, Redevelopment, and Public Housing, Jefferson County, Alabama Board of Health, April 12, 1950.
279. Denison, Health as an Indication, 10.
280. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Slum Clearance under the Housing Act of 1949,Washington, D.C., August 1949, 1-6.
281. Birmingham Age-Herald, December 25, 1949.
282. Birmingham News, November 4, 1951.
283. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Compendium of City Government Finances in 1952 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1953), table 24.
284. Denison, Health as an Indication, 8.
285. Birmingham Post-Herald, January 14, 1953.
286. Birmingham News, June 19, 1952.
287. Birmingham News, June 25, 1952.
288. Birmingham News,May 16, 1953.
289. Birmingham World, October 9, 1953.
290. Birmingham News, July 23, 1953.
291. Birmingham World, June 12, 1953;.
292. Birmingham World, July 28, 1953.
293. Birmingham News, July 23, 1953;.
294. Birmingham World, July 28, 1953.
295. James Andrew Wiese, "Struggle for the Suburban Dream: African American Suburbanization since 1916" (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1993), 194-232.
296. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 70-71.
297. Birmingham News, July 24, 1953, July 27, 1953;.
298. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 23, 1953;.
299. Birmingham World, July 28, 1953.
300. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 72.
301. Wiese, "Struggle for the Suburban Dream," 219-20.
302. Birmingham News, September 16, 1955.
303. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 95;.
304. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 110-11.
305. Birmingham World, October 9, 1953;.
306. Birmingham Post-Herald, October 7, 1953.
307. Birmingham World, October 9, 1953.
308. Samuel R. Gibbons, "Re: Conversation, Washington, June 29, 1953," July 1, 1953, 107.
309. Birmingham World, September 29, 1953, October 2, 1953, October 9, 1953.
310. Christopher Scribner, "The Quiet Revolution: Federal Funding and Change in Birmingham, Alabama, 1933-1965" (PhD diss., Vanderbilt University, 1996), 189-90.
311. Birmingham World, October 16, 1953.
312. Birmingham World, May 10, 1955.
313. Arnold Hirsch, "Search for a 'Sound Negro Policy': A Racial Agenda for the Housing Acts of 1949 and 1954," Housing Policy Debate 11 (2000): 393-442.
314. Bernard Frieden and Lynne Sagalyn, Downtown, Inc.: How America Rebuilds Cities (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989), 23.
315. Birmingham News, November 28, 1953.
316. Jeffrey Rush and Abraham Williams, residents of Sloss Quarters, interviews in Like It Ain't Never Passed: Remembering Life in Sloss Quarters, ed. Barbara Nunn (Birmingham: Sloss Furnaces National Historic Landmark, 1985), 2, 5.
317. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
318. Birmingham News, July 27, 1955, July 28, 1955.
319. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 28, 1955.
320. Birmingham News, July 28, 1955.
321. Leonard Freedman, Public Housing: The Politics of Poverty (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969), 15-57.
322. Birmingham News, September 15, 1955.
323. Marjorie Longenecker White, Downtown Birmingham: Architectural and Historical Walking Tour Guide (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1980), 83.
324. Birmingham News, February 19, 1958.
325. Marjorie Longenecker White, The Birmingham District: An Industrial History and Guide (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1981), 98-106.
326. Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 28-32.
327. Birmingham Post, July 13, 1926.
328. White, The Birmingham District, 104;.
329. Carolyn Green Satterfield, Historic Sites of Jefferson County, Alabama (Birmingham: Jefferson County Historical Commission, 1985), 60.
330. U.S. Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population: 1950: Birmingham, Alabama, Census Tract Statistics (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952), tables 1, 3.
331. Ethel Armes, The Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (Birmingham: Chamber of Commerce, 1910), 395.
332. White, The Birmingham District, 101.
333. U.S. Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population: 1950: Birmingham, Alabama, Census Tract Statistics (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952).
334. DeLeuw, Cather and Company, Ensley-Pratt City Urban Renewal Study, August, 1958.
335. Mark I. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 227-28.
336. DeLeuw, Cather and Company, Ensley-Pratt City, 3.
337. Mel Scott, American City Planning since 1890 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 501;.
338. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities, 171-76;.
339. U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, How Localities Can Develop a Workable Program for Urban Renewal (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954).
340. Birmingham World, December 11, 1957.
341. Birmingham Post, July 13, 1926.
342. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 9, 1958.
343. Betty Bock, "An Analysis of the Impact of Racial Transition on the Desirability of Neighborhoods" (master's thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1976), 71-74;.
344. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of Population and Housing, Census Tracts, Birmingham, Alabama Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, June 1983;.
345. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population, Population and Housing Characteristics for Census Tracts and Block Numbering Areas, Birmingham, Alabama MSA, April 1993.
346. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 206-7;.
347. Birmingham World, August 31, 1963, September 7, 1963.
348. Hirsch, Making of the Second Ghetto, 130-32.
349. Birmingham News,May 9, 1959.
350. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Report of the Seventeenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1950, vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952), 55;.
351. U.S. Bureau of the Census, The Eighteenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1960, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1963), 167;.
352. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population and Housing, CD ROM; Charles Connerly, "Urban Rivalry and the South: Atlanta and Birmingham," paper presented at 1993 Society for American City and Regional Planning History Conference, Chicago.
353. Hammer, Greene, Siler Associates, The Economy of Metropolitan Birmingham (Atlanta, 1966), 75;.
354. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 58.
355. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940 Population, vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1943), 337;.
356. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Report of the Seventeenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1950, vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2: Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952), 55;.
357. U.S. Bureau of the Census, The Eighteenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1960, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1963), 167;.
358. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Nineteenth Census of the United States: 1970 Census of Population, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), 233;.
359. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Twentieth Census of the United States: 1980 Census of Population, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population: Detailed Population Characteristics, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1983), 537-38;.
360. Ann Markusen, Profit Cycles, Oligopoly, and Regional Development (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 91-92.
361. Hammer, Greene, Siler, Economy of Metropolitan Birmingham, 20.
362. Birmingham News, September 28, 1958.
363. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Report of the Seventeenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1950 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952);.
364. The Eighteenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1960 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1963).
365. Bradley R. Rice, "The Battle of Buckhead: The Plan of Improvement and Atlanta's Last Big Annexation," Atlanta Historical Journal 25 (1981): 5-22;.
366. Clarence Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 28-32.
367. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Report of the Seventeenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1950, vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952), 55.
368. U.S. Bureau of the Census, The Eighteenth Decennial Census of the United States: Census of Population: 1960, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 2, Alabama, 167.
369. Ivan Allen Jr., with Paul Hemphill, Mayor: Notes on the Sixties (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), 103.
370. Carl Abbott, The New Urban America, rev. ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 24-35.
371. Birmingham News, October 12, 1958.
372. Birmingham Post-Herald, January 1, 1962.
373. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 10.
374. Harold H. Martin, "Birmingham," Saturday Evening Post, September 6, 1947, 22-23, 54-58.
375. Charles Morgan Jr., A Time To Speak (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 9.
376. James C. Cobb, The Selling of the South, 2d ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 36, 46-50.
377. Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, The Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 77.
378. Robert Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony: Race Relations in Birmingham, Alabama, 1947-1963" (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 1979), 197-205.
379. Mervyn Sterne, head of a leading security investment company (Committee of 100, Birmingham Diary, 1957).
380. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home, Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 107-8;.
381. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 125;.
382. Andrew Manis, A Fire You Can't Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham's Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 91-95.
383. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 125-27.
384. Glenn T. Eskew, "'The Classes and the Masses': Fred Shuttlesworth's Movement and Birmingham's Black Middle Class," in Birmingham Revolutionaries: The Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, ed. Marjorie L. White and Andrew M. Manis (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2000), 37-38;.
385. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 111-12.
386. Eskew, "'The Classes and the Masses,'" 36-37.
387. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984), 68-69;.
388. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 125.
389. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 130-32;.
390. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 113-15;.
391. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 141-42.
392. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 140-41;.
393. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 127-29;.
394. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 137-38.
395. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 153-58;.
396. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 200-208;.
397. Numan V. Bartley, The New South: 1945-1980 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995), 306-7;.
398. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 215-18.
399. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 160;.
400. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 213-14;.
401. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 218.
402. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 218.
403. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 112.
404. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 67.
405. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 109-13.
406. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 222-23;.
407. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 219;.
408. Wall Street Journal, May 26, 1961.
409. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 111-14;.
410. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 175-76.
411. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 170-71;.
412. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 247-49.
413. David Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change from the Commission to the Mayor-Council Form of Government in Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham, 1981), 3-4.
414. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 213;.
415. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 180.
416. Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 81-82.
417. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 178-79;.
418. Birmingham Planning Commission, A Report on Schools and Parks, A Part of the Comprehensive Plan, Birmingham, Alabama, January 1961, 11;.
419. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 247-53.
420. Mel Scott, American City Planning since 1890 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 10-26;.
421. Birmingham Planning Commission, The Comprehensive Plan, December 1961, 115-31;.
422. Daniel Bluestone, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 7-35.
423. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 112.
424. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 223-24;.
425. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 179.
426. Birmingham News, January 10, 1962;.
427. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 257;.
428. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 257-58;.
429. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 223-24.
430. Wall Street Journal,March 12, 1962.
431. Birmingham News, December 16, 1961.
432. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 180;.
433. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 257-58.
434. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 225.
435. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 4-5;.
436. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 370 n. 51.
437. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 12;.
438. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 100-109;.
439. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 282-86.
440. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 12.
441. Harry Holloway, The Politics of the Southern Negro (New York: Random House, 1969), 158-59.
442. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 180-81.
443. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 86-91;.
444. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 167-68.
445. Holloway, Southern Negro, 158;.
446. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 221-22.
447. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 196-97, 202, 243;.
448. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 222.
449. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 366 n. 27.
450. Holloway, Southern Negro, 159.
451. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 13-14;.
452. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 166.
453. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 14.
454. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 181-82;.
455. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 285-86.
456. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 296;.
457. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 226.
458. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 20;.
459. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 226-27.
460. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 228-29;.
461. Edward LaMonte, Politics and Welfare in Birmingham: 1900-1975 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), 168;.
462. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 182.
463. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 299-300;.
464. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 22-23.
465. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 229-30;.
466. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 188.
467. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 300.
468. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 189;.
469. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 313.
470. Rogers, Ward, Atkins, and Flynt, Alabama: The History of a Deep South State, 547-48;.
471. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 245-46.
472. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 190;.
473. LaMonte, Politics and Welfare, 172;.
474. Birmingham Post-Herald, February 27, 1963.
475. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 313.
476. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 246;.
477. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 190.
478. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 247;.
479. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 190;.
480. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 315.
481. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 248;.
482. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 191;.
483. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 320.
484. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 248;.
485. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 191;.
486. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 320.
487. LaMonte, Politics and Welfare, 173;.
488. Birmingham News, April 3, 1963;.
489. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 249;.
490. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 320.
491. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 251.
492. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 193-216.
493. Birmingham Post-Herald, November 6, 1957;.
494. Birmingham News, March 18, 1958.
495. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 248-57.
496. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 366-68.
497. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 256-65;.
498. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 258-59.
499. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 266-69;.
500. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 259;.
501. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 377-78.
502. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 269-70;.
503. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 261-64;.
504. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 25-26;.
505. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 378-85.
506. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 269-77;.
507. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 261-68;.
508. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 26-27;.
509. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 389.
510. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 28.
511. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 287-88, 396;.
512. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 201-2, 277.
513. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 403-7;.
514. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 268-69;.
515. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 279-80.
516. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 407.
517. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 283-85;.
518. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 269-70;.
519. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 413.
520. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 204-10, 280-95;.
521. Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change, 28-29;.
522. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 413-17, 419-20.
523. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 299-300.
524. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 452;.
525. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 276.
526. Manis, A Fire You Can't Put Out, 386-87;.
527. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 291-92.
528. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 231, 239;.
529. Birmingham News, September 29, 1963.
530. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 194-95;.
531. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 231-32.
532. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 147.
533. Manis, A Fire You Can't Put Out, 256-61, 281-82.
534. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 296-97.
535. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 427-34.
536. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 319-21;.
537. New York Times, September 16, 1963;.
538. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 531-32.
539. Corley, "The Quest for Racial Harmony," 277.
540. Birmingham Post-Herald, October 12, 1963;.
541. Birmingham World, October 16, 1963.
542. Birmingham News, July 20, 1964;.
543. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 326, 397 n. 52.
544. Birmingham News, April 2, 1964;.
545. Birmingham Post-Herald, April 1, 1964.
546. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959;.
547. Birmingham News, April 17, 1959;.
548. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 58-60.
549. Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959.
550. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 59;.
551. Birmingham News, April 16, 1959.
552. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959 April 12, 1959.
553. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 56;.
554. Birmingham News, February 11, 1959.
555. Edward S. LaMonte, "Politics and Welfare in Birmingham, 1900-1974" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1976), 316-17.
556. Connerly, "'One Great City,'" 44-46.
557. Holloway, Politics of the Southern Negro, 158.
558. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 328.
559. Birmingham News, August 20, 1961.
560. Marjorie Longenecker White, Downtown Birmingham: Architectural and Historical Walking Tour Guide (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1980), 83.
561. Birmingham Downtown Improvement Association, Proceedings of Property Owners Workshop, December 3, 1963;.
562. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 388-89, 391, 396.
563. Charles H. Levine, Racial Conflict and the American Mayor (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974), 90, 95, 104 n. 8;.
564. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 183.
565. LaMonte, "Politics and Welfare in Birmingham," 331;.
566. Birmingham News, January 25, 1965.
567. Birmingham News,March 13, 1964;.
568. Birmingham Post-Herald,March 13, 1964.
569. Birmingham News, January 25, 1965.
570. Birmingham News, October 12, 1965.
571. LaMonte, "Politics and Welfare in Birmingham," 332;.
572. Birmingham News, November 3, 1966.
573. Birmingham News, October 19, 1965.
574. LaMonte, "Politics and Welfare in Birmingham" Birmingham News, January 19, 1968.
575. Birmingham News, September 24, 1965.
576. Birmingham News,March 19, 1963.
577. Virginia E. Fisher, Building on a Vision: A Fifty-Year Retrospective of UAB's Academic Health Center (Birmingham: University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1995), 3, 75.
578. Christopher Scribner, "The Quiet Revolution: Federal Funding and Change in Birmingham, Alabama, 1933-1965" (PhD diss., Vanderbilt University, 1996), 350-58.
579. LaMonte, "Politics and Welfare in Birmingham," 351-52.
580. Levine, Racial Conflict, 91.
581. Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1975), 69-72.
582. Birmingham News,May 30, 1968.
583. Birmingham World, March 23, 1968, April 6, 1968.
584. Jeffrey M. Berry, Kent E. Portney, and Ken Thomson, The Rebirth of Urban Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), 301-3.
585. Philip A. Morris and Marjorie Longenecker White, eds., Designs on Birmingham: A Landscape History of a Southern City and Its Suburbs (Birmingham: Birmingham Historical Society, 1989), 64-65.
586. Betty Bock, "An Analysis of the Impact of Racial Transition on the Desirability of Neighborhoods" (master's thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1976), 74.
587. Bock, "An Analysis of the Impact of Racial Transition," 72.
588. Birmingham World, February 24, 1973, March 3, 1973.
589. Robert J. Norrell and Otis Dismuke, The Other Side: The Story of Birmingham's Black Community (Birmingham: Birmingfind, n.d.);.
590. Angela Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (New York: International Publishers, 1974), 87-92;.
591. Birmingham World, June 8, 1948.
592. Henry M. McKiven Jr., Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 60-61.
593. Jimmie Lewis Franklin, Back to Birmingham: Richard Arrington Jr. and His Times (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), 57-59.
594. Nell Irvin Painter, The Narrative of Hosea Hudson (New York: Norton, 1979), 263.
595. Birmingham World, April 8, 1972.
596. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 76-78;.
597. Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1990), 183-84.
598. Birmingham World, October 6, 1949.
599. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 72;.
600. Dorothy Autrey, "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Alabama, 1913-1952" (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 1985), 216-18, 253.
601. Birmingham World, February 1, 1952.
602. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967).
603. Autrey, "The NAACP in Alabama," 218, 252-53.
604. Murray, "Interracial Communication in Birmingham," 5-8.
605. Franklin, Back to Birmingham, 61.
606. Birmingham News, November 8, 1972.
607. Charles H. Levine, Racial Conflict and the American Mayor (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974), 93.
608. Birmingham News,March 10, 1974.
609. Birmingham World, March 30, 1974.
610. Birmingham News,March 6, 1956, April 2, 1956.
611. Shades Valley Sun, June 21, 1956.
612. Birmingham Post-Herald, March 13, 1958.
613. Birmingham News,March 19, 1958.
614. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 20, 1975.
615. Birmingham News, June 30, 1975.
616. Birmingham Post-Herald, November 27, 1975.
617. Alabama State Tenants Organization et al., v. Bass 549 F.2d 961 (1977).
618. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 25, 1977.
619. Birmingham News, June 14, 1977.
620. Steven H. Haeberle, Planting the Grassroots: Structuring Citizen Participation (New York: Praeger, 1989), 105.
621. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 2, 1977.
622. Birmingham News, April 25, 1977.
623. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 14, 1977.
624. Paul Dommel et al., Targeting Community Development, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, January 1980), 24.
625. Dommel, Targeting Community Development, 25-26.
626. Donald B. Rosenthal, Urban Housing and Neighborhood Revitalization (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988), 44.
627. Roger Starr, "Making New York Smaller," New York Times Magazine, November 14, 1976.
628. Conrad Weiler, "Urban Euthanasia for Fun and Profit," in Neighborhood Policy and Planning, ed. Philip L. Clay and Robert M. Hollister (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1983), 167-75.
629. Birmingham News, November 14, 1978.
630. Birmingham News, November 21, 1978;.
631. Phyllis Kaniss, Cynthia Livermore, and Michael Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," Community Development Strategies Evaluation, University of Pennsylvania, August 1984, 56-57.
632. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 58.
633. Birmingham Post-Herald, February 20, 1979.
634. Greater Birmingham Ministries, Administrative Performance Case Study, Birmingham, Alabama, 6-7;.
635. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 58-59.
636. Betty Bock, "An Analysis of the Impact of Racial Transition on the Desirability of Neighborhoods" (master's thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1976), 134-37;.
637. Birmingham News, August 8, 1979.
638. Greater Birmingham Ministries, Administrative Performance Case Study, Birmingham, Alabama, 17-18;.
639. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 61-62.
640. Birmingham News, June 30, 1979.
641. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 62.
642. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 63-64.
643. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 66.
644. Kaniss, Livermore, and Hindery, "Case Studies of Two Technical Assistance Providers," 65.
645. Jimmie Lewis Franklin, Back to Birmingham: Richard Arrington Jr. and His Times (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), 18-48.
646. Charles H. Levine, Racial Conflict and the American Mayor (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974), 97-99.
647. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 397 n. 52.
648. Franklin, Back to Birmingham, 92-133.
649. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 6;.
650. Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham, Alabama," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 669-94.
651. Charles E. Connerly, "'One Great City' or Colonial Economy? Explaining Birmingham's Annexation Struggles, 1945-1990," Journal of Urban History 26 (1999): 50.
652. Connerly, "'One Great City,'" 50.
653. Birmingham News,May 7, 1995.
654. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 25, 1991.
655. Birmingham News, April 14, 1997.
656. Franklin, Back to Birmingham, 330.
657. Stone, Regime Politics;.
658. June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
659. Norman Krumholz and John Forester, Making Equity Planning Work (Chicago: Planners Press, 1990).
660. Joe Feagin, "Arenas of Conflict: Zoning and Land Use Reform in Critical Political-Economic Perspective," in Zoning and the American Dream, ed. Charles M. Haar and Jerold S. Kayden, 84-89;.
661. Charles Haar, Suburbs under Siege: Race, Space, and Audacious Judges (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 8-9, 15-16.
662. Larry Keating, "Redeveloping Public Housing: Relearning Urban Renewal's Immutable Lessons," Journal of the American Planning Association 66 (2000): 384-97.
663. Birmingham World, May 26, 1953.