"One great city" or colonial economy? Explaining Birmingham's annexation struggles, 1945-1990

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 44-73

  Connerly, Charles E ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LEGISLATION; POPULATION DECLINE; URBAN GROWTH; URBAN POLICY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033283138     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429902600103     Document Type: Article

References (214)

1. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier (New York, 1985), 139-40, 153; David R. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers (Baltimore, 1982), 152-3; Carl Abbott, The New Urban America (Chapel Hill, 1987, 2nd edn.), 54-5. Annexation signifies the taking of unincorporated land by a municipality, while consolidation refers to the union of two previously separate, incorporated jurisdictions. Generally, annexation will be used in this article to signify either annexation or consolidation. As Jackson notes in Crabgrass Frontier, the end result, city expansion, is the same.
2. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier (New York, 1985), 139-40, 153; David R. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers (Baltimore, 1982), 152-3; Carl Abbott, The New Urban America (Chapel Hill, 1987, 2nd edn.), 54-5. Annexation signifies the taking of unincorporated land by a municipality, while consolidation refers to the union of two previously separate, incorporated jurisdictions. Generally, annexation will be used in this article to signify either annexation or consolidation. As Jackson notes in Crabgrass Frontier, the end result, city expansion, is the same.
3. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier (New York, 1985), 139-40, 153; David R. Goldfield, Cotton Fields and Skyscrapers (Baltimore, 1982), 152-3; Carl Abbott, The New Urban America (Chapel Hill, 1987, 2nd edn.), 54-5. Annexation signifies the taking of unincorporated land by a municipality, while consolidation refers to the union of two previously separate, incorporated jurisdictions. Generally, annexation will be used in this article to signify either annexation or consolidation. As Jackson notes in Crabgrass Frontier, the end result, city expansion, is the same.
4. The U.S. Census definitions of the four geographic regions are employed here.
5. David Rusk, Cities without Suburbs (Washington, DC, 1993), 9; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 139-40.
6. David Rusk, Cities without Suburbs (Washington, DC, 1993), 9; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 139-40.
7. Samuel H. Pullman to editor, Richmond Dispatch, January 1, 1897, quoted in C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge, LA, 1951, 1971), 310. For Birmingham's place in the New South's colonial economy, see Woodward, Origins of the New South, 299-302, 315-7; W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994), 217, 498.
8. Samuel H. Pullman to editor, Richmond Dispatch, January 1, 1897, quoted in C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge, LA, 1951, 1971), 310. For Birmingham's place in the New South's colonial economy, see Woodward, Origins of the New South, 299-302, 315-7; W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994), 217, 498.
9. Samuel H. Pullman to editor, Richmond Dispatch, January 1, 1897, quoted in C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge, LA, 1951, 1971), 310. For Birmingham's place in the New South's colonial economy, see Woodward, Origins of the New South, 299-302, 315-7; W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994), 217, 498.
10. Samuel H. Pullman to editor, Richmond Dispatch, January 1, 1897, quoted in C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge, LA, 1951, 1971), 310. For Birmingham's place in the New South's colonial economy, see Woodward, Origins of the New South, 299-302, 315-7; W. David Lewis, Sloss Furnaces and the Rise of the Birmingham District (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994), 217, 498.
11. Christopher Silver, "The Racial Origins of Zoning in American Cities," in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1997), 38. Charles E. Connerly and Bobby Wilson, "Planning, Jim Crow, and the Civil Rights Movement: The Rebirth and Demise of Racial Zoning in Birmingham" (unpublished paper presented at the 1992 Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning Conference).
12. Christopher Silver, "The Racial Origins of Zoning in American Cities," in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1997), 38. Charles E. Connerly and Bobby Wilson, "Planning, Jim Crow, and the Civil Rights Movement: The Rebirth and Demise of Racial Zoning in Birmingham" (unpublished paper presented at the 1992 Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning Conference).
13. Glenn T. Eskew, "The Freedom Ride Riot and Political Reform in Birmingham, 1961-1963," Alabama Review 49 (Summer 1996): 208-9.
14. See, for example, Bernard Frieden and Lynn Sagalyn, Downtown, Inc. (Cambridge, MA, 1989).
15. Birmingham News, May 7, 1995. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
16. Birmingham News, May 7, 1995. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
17. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 25, 1991. (Reprinted with permission)
18. Metropolitan Development Board, "Master Plan for Oxmoor Valley Due Soon," October 1989; HOH Associates, Inc., Oxmoor, Phase B, Master Plan Report, (Birmingham, 1990), 1, 26, 39, 45, 52.
19. Metropolitan Development Board, "Master Plan for Oxmoor Valley Due Soon," October 1989; HOH Associates, Inc., Oxmoor, Phase B, Master Plan Report, (Birmingham, 1990), 1, 26, 39, 45, 52.
20. Birmingham News, May 7, 1995.
21. Annexation, City of Birmingham, January 1, 1910 to January 1, 1973, City Council Papers, File 18.8, Birmingham Public Library (hereafter BPL).
22. Carl V. Harris, "Annexation Struggles and Political Power in Birmingham, Alabama, 1890-1910," The Alabama Review 27 (July 1974): 170-1, 175, 179.
23. Ibid., 166-72; Carl Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, TN, 1977), 26.
24. Ibid., 166-72; Carl Harris, Political Power in Birmingham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville, TN, 1977), 26.
25. What prompted Comer to exclude T.C.I.-U.S. Steel is unclear, but regarding another issue related to state and local taxes, T.C.I.'s president, George Gordon Crawford, argued in 1911 that he was largely able to obtain appropriations from U.S. Steel's New York managers by telling them that investment capital "would be encouraged and treated fairly if it were put here." In other words, if Birmingham's largest firm was to continue to compete for northern capital, it needed to keep the lid on taxes. Harris, "Annexation Struggles," 172-9.
26. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 26, 1923. (Reprinted with permission.)
27. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 26, 1923; August 3, 1923. According to newspaper accounts, the defeat of the Brower annexation bill was only the third time in twenty-five years that an Alabama Senate committee refused to support local legislation backed by a district's state senator. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 27, 1923.
28. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 26, 1923; August 3, 1923. According to newspaper accounts, the defeat of the Brower annexation bill was only the third time in twenty-five years that an Alabama Senate committee refused to support local legislation backed by a district's state senator. Birmingham Age-Herald, July 27, 1923.
29. Birmingham News, July 29, 1923; August 2, 1923. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
30. Birmingham News, July 29, 1923; August 2, 1923. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
31. The Code of Alabama, Adopted by Act of the Legislature of Alabama, Approved July 27, 1907, § 1071.
32. The Code of Alabama, Adopted by Act of the Legislature of Alabama, Approved August 17, 1923, § 1765 (9) (revision of 1071(9)).
33. See Appellant Brief for City of Birmingham v. T.J. Wilkinson, Alabama Supreme Court Case 85-1262, October 31, 1986, prepared by David J. Vann and John P. Carlton.
34. After an intensive period of consolidation culminating with the acquisition of T.C.I. by U.S. Steel in 1907, six large companies owned 35 percent of the land in Jefferson County. Nearly 20 percent was owned by U.S. Steel. See Marjorie White, The Birmingham District: An Industrial History and Guide (Birmingham, 1981), 52, 93.
35. Office of the Clerk-Council, The Effects of Existing Annexation Laws Applicable to Birmingham, Alabama, November 1970, City Council Papers, File 9.35, BPL.
36. Annexation, City of Birmingham, January 1, 1910 to January 1, 1973, City Council Papers, File 18.8, BPL.
37. National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries: Law and Practice (Washington, DC, 1966), 291-2, 298; William N. Black, Empire of Consensus: City Planning, Zoning, and Annexation in Dallas, 1900-1960 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1982), 272-3; Robert D. Thomas and Richard W. Murray, Progrowth Politics: Change and Governance in Houston (Berkeley, 1991), 146; Arnold Fleischmann, "Sunbelt Boosterism: The Politics of Postwar Growth and Annexation in San Antonio," in David C. Perry and Alfred J. Watkins, eds., The Rise of the Sunbelt Cities (Beverly Hills, CA, 1977), 154.
38. National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries: Law and Practice (Washington, DC, 1966), 291-2, 298; William N. Black, Empire of Consensus: City Planning, Zoning, and Annexation in Dallas, 1900-1960 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1982), 272-3; Robert D. Thomas and Richard W. Murray, Progrowth Politics: Change and Governance in Houston (Berkeley, 1991), 146; Arnold Fleischmann, "Sunbelt Boosterism: The Politics of Postwar Growth and Annexation in San Antonio," in David C. Perry and Alfred J. Watkins, eds., The Rise of the Sunbelt Cities (Beverly Hills, CA, 1977), 154.
39. National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries: Law and Practice (Washington, DC, 1966), 291-2, 298; William N. Black, Empire of Consensus: City Planning, Zoning, and Annexation in Dallas, 1900-1960 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1982), 272-3; Robert D. Thomas and Richard W. Murray, Progrowth Politics: Change and Governance in Houston (Berkeley, 1991), 146; Arnold Fleischmann, "Sunbelt Boosterism: The Politics of Postwar Growth and Annexation in San Antonio," in David C. Perry and Alfred J. Watkins, eds., The Rise of the Sunbelt Cities (Beverly Hills, CA, 1977), 154.
40. National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries: Law and Practice (Washington, DC, 1966), 291-2, 298; William N. Black, Empire of Consensus: City Planning, Zoning, and Annexation in Dallas, 1900-1960 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1982), 272-3; Robert D. Thomas and Richard W. Murray, Progrowth Politics: Change and Governance in Houston (Berkeley, 1991), 146; Arnold Fleischmann, "Sunbelt Boosterism: The Politics of Postwar Growth and Annexation in San Antonio," in David C. Perry and Alfred J. Watkins, eds., The Rise of the Sunbelt Cities (Beverly Hills, CA, 1977), 154.
41. David G. Temple, Merger Politics: Local Government Consolidation in Tidewater Virginia (Charlottesville, VA, 1972), 17-8.
42. William T. Moye, Charlotte-Mecklenburg: Metrolina in Motion (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1975) 316-7; National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries, 240-1.
43. William T. Moye, Charlotte-Mecklenburg: Metrolina in Motion (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1975) 316-7; National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries, 240-1.
44. Brett W. Hawkins, Nashville Metro: The Politics of City-County Consolidation (Nashville, TN, 1966), 36-7, 58.
45. Temple, Merger Politics, 21, 22; W. E. Lyons, The Politics of City-County Merger: The Lexington-Fayette County Experience (Lexington, KY, 1977), 147.
46. Temple, Merger Politics, 21, 22; W. E. Lyons, The Politics of City-County Merger: The Lexington-Fayette County Experience (Lexington, KY, 1977), 147.
47. Richard M. Bernard, "Oklahoma City: Booming Sooner," in Richard M. Bernard and Bradley R. Rice, eds., Sunbelt Cities: Politics and Growth since World War II (Austin, TX, 1983), 221-2.
48. The report describes Alabama's petition requirement as "cumbersome." National League of Cities, Adjusting Municipal Boundaries, 81.
49. White, The Birmingham District, 106-9; Ethel Armes, The Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (1910; rpt. edn., Leeds, AL, 1987), 330-5.
50. White, The Birmingham District, 106-9; Ethel Armes, The Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (1910; rpt. edn., Leeds, AL, 1987), 330-5.
51. White, The Birmingham District, 174-6.
52. Marvin Whiting, ed., Fairfield: Past, Present, Future (Fairfield, AL, 1985), 4-32.
53. White, The Birmingham District, 228.
54. Birmingham News, March 25, 1942.
55. Birmingham News, February 11, 1941. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
56. Birmingham News, February 11, 1941. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
57. Birmingham News - Age-Herald, June 2, 1929.
58. Annexation, City of Birmingham, January 1, 1910 to January 1, 1973, City Council Papers, File 18.8, BPL.
59. Birmingham Post, May 18, 1927; Annexation, City of Birmingham, January 1, 1910 to January 1, 1973, City Council Papers, File 18.8, BPL.
60. Birmingham News, July 5, 1940; January 14, 1941; March 28, 1941; Birmingham Post, September 9, 1940; August 23, 1940; Birmingham Age-Herald, January 28, 1941.
61. Birmingham News, July 5, 1940; January 14, 1941; March 28, 1941; Birmingham Post, September 9, 1940; August 23, 1940; Birmingham Age-Herald, January 28, 1941.
62. Birmingham News, July 5, 1940; January 14, 1941; March 28, 1941; Birmingham Post, September 9, 1940; August 23, 1940; Birmingham Age-Herald, January 28, 1941.
63. Birmingham Post, August 23, 1940. (Reprinted with permission.)
64. Under Title 37, Section 188 of the 1940 Code of Alabama, only fifty signatures of a jurisdiction's residents were required to initiate a merger referendum in that community. This law was employed in the 1959 and 1964 consolidation attempts discussed below. Birmingham News, March 10, 1959; June 16, 1964; June 30, 1964.
65. Legislative Advisory Commission, The Problem of Government in the Birmingham Metropolitan District, February 28, 1947, Cooper Green Papers, File 9.4, BPL, 37-8, 65-8; Birmingham Post, April 2, 1947; Birmingham News, July 4, 1947.
66. Legislative Advisory Commission, The Problem of Government in the Birmingham Metropolitan District, February 28, 1947, Cooper Green Papers, File 9.4, BPL, 37-8, 65-8; Birmingham Post, April 2, 1947; Birmingham News, July 4, 1947.
67. Legislative Advisory Commission, The Problem of Government in the Birmingham Metropolitan District, February 28, 1947, Cooper Green Papers, File 9.4, BPL, 37-8, 65-8; Birmingham Post, April 2, 1947; Birmingham News, July 4, 1947.
68. Legislative Advisory Commission, The Problem of Government in the Birmingham Metropolitan District, February 28, 1947, Cooper Green Papers, File 9.4, BPL, 37-8, 65-8; Birmingham Post, April 2, 1947; Birmingham News, July 4, 1947.
69. Birmingham Post, July 24, 1949; Birmingham News, July 4, 1948; July 6, 1948; October 23, 1948; October 24, 1948. Normally, when a local delegation agrees unanimously to support a bill that affects only its district, the Alabama House of Representatives and Senate will pass that bill. James D. Thomas and William H. Stewart, Alabama Government and Politics (Lincoln, NE, 1988), 149-50.
70. Birmingham Post, July 24, 1949; Birmingham News, July 4, 1948; July 6, 1948; October 23, 1948; October 24, 1948. Normally, when a local delegation agrees unanimously to support a bill that affects only its district, the Alabama House of Representatives and Senate will pass that bill. James D. Thomas and William H. Stewart, Alabama Government and Politics (Lincoln, NE, 1988), 149-50.
71. Birmingham Post, July 24, 1949; Birmingham News, July 4, 1948; July 6, 1948; October 23, 1948; October 24, 1948. Normally, when a local delegation agrees unanimously to support a bill that affects only its district, the Alabama House of Representatives and Senate will pass that bill. James D. Thomas and William H. Stewart, Alabama Government and Politics (Lincoln, NE, 1988), 149-50.
72. Birmingham Age-Herald, May 14, 1949. In 1908, the state legislature authorized the Greater Birmingham referendum of 1908, in which 58.6 percent of Birmingham's suburban voters cast their ballots for consolidation. The vote was disallowed, however, because the state's courts found technical flaws with the state act that authorized the election. Harris, " Annexation Struggles," 170-1, 175, 179.
73. Birmingham Age-Herald, May 14, 1949. In 1908, the state legislature authorized the Greater Birmingham referendum of 1908, in which 58.6 percent of Birmingham's suburban voters cast their ballots for consolidation. The vote was disallowed, however, because the state's courts found technical flaws with the state act that authorized the election. Harris, " Annexation Struggles," 170-1, 175, 179.
74. Birmingham Post, June 29, 1949; August 24, 1949; September 1, 1949; September 12, 1949; Birmingham News, July 27, 1949; Birmingham Age-Herald, September 9, 1949.
75. Birmingham Post, June 29, 1949; August 24, 1949; September 1, 1949; September 12, 1949; Birmingham News, July 27, 1949; Birmingham Age-Herald, September 9, 1949.
76. Birmingham Post, June 29, 1949; August 24, 1949; September 1, 1949; September 12, 1949; Birmingham News, July 27, 1949; Birmingham Age-Herald, September 9, 1949.
77. Birmingham News, August 30, 1949.
78. Birmingham Post, September 14, 1949.
79. Birmingham News, August 25, 1948.
80. Birmingham Age-Herald, April 28, 1949.
81. Harris, "Annexation Struggles," 172; Birmingham News, August 25, 1948.
82. Harris, "Annexation Struggles," 172; Birmingham News, August 25, 1948.
83. Birmingham Post, August 24, 1949.
84. Cooper Green to Editor, Birmingham Post, August 25, 1949, Cooper Green Papers, File 3.21, BPL. (Reprinted with permission.)
85. Big Mules is a term Alabama politicians have used to describe the large and influential Birmingham iron and steel firms, such as T.C.I.-U.S. Steel, and other businesses that have had great influence on Alabama state and local politics. William Warren Rogers, Robert David Ward, Leah Rawls Atkins, and Wayne Flynt, Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1994), 413.
86. William A. Nunnelley, Bull Connor (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1991), 14, 29.
87. Birmingham News, August 25, 1948; August 26, 1948.
88. Birmingham Post, September 14, 1949; Annexation, City of Birmingham, January 1, 1910 to January 1, 1973, City Council Papers, File 18.8, BPL.
89. Bradley R. Rice, "The Battle of Buckhead: The Plan of Improvement and Atlanta's Last Big Annexation," Atlanta Historical Journal 25 (Winter 1981): 5-22.
90. Clarence Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence, KS, 1989), 38-9.
91. Theodore Bogosian and William B. Marcus, "Expanding Atlanta's City Limits (B)" and "Expanding Atlanta's City Limits: Sequel" (Kennedy School of Government Case Program, John F. Kennedy School of Government, 1977), 1 (Sequel).
92. Richard Martin, Consolidation: Jacksonville Duval County (Jacksonville, FL, 1968), 34.
93. Moye, "Charlotte-Mecklenburg Consolidation," 202.
94. Thomas and Murray, Progrowth Politics, 113. As noted earlier, Atlanta's expansion occurred in 1952, prior to court-ordered school integration. In Nashville, suburban unincorporated residents faced a choice between annexation and consolidation, rather than consolidation and the status quo, and preferred consolidation because it promised better services. It was an unusual city-county consolidation because suburban residents favored merger, and city residents were opposed. Hawkins, Nashville Metro, 82, 138.
95. Thomas and Murray, Progrowth Politics, 113. As noted earlier, Atlanta's expansion occurred in 1952, prior to court-ordered school integration. In Nashville, suburban unincorporated residents faced a choice between annexation and consolidation, rather than consolidation and the status quo, and preferred consolidation because it promised better services. It was an unusual city-county consolidation because suburban residents favored merger, and city residents were opposed. Hawkins, Nashville Metro, 82, 138.
96. Charles Morgan, Jr., A Time to Speak (New York, 1964), 56; Birmingham Post-Herald, February 10, 1959; Birmingham News, March 11, 1959.
97. Charles Morgan, Jr., A Time to Speak (New York, 1964), 56; Birmingham Post-Herald, February 10, 1959; Birmingham News, March 11, 1959.
98. Charles Morgan, Jr., A Time to Speak (New York, 1964), 56; Birmingham Post-Herald, February 10, 1959; Birmingham News, March 11, 1959.
99. Birmingham Post-Herald, February 10, 1959; Birmingham News, March 10, 1959.
100. Birmingham Post-Herald, February 10, 1959; Birmingham News, March 10, 1959.
101. Birmingham News, February 8, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, May 9, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959.
102. Birmingham News, February 8, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, May 9, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959.
103. Birmingham News, February 8, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, May 9, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959.
104. Birmingham News, February 8, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, May 9, 1959; Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959.
105. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959; Morgan, 1964, 58-60.
106. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959; Birmingham News, April 17, 1959; Morgan, 1964, 58-60.
107. Birmingham Post-Herald, March 27, 1959. (Reprinted with permission.)
108. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 59; Birmingham News, April 16, 1959.
109. Morgan, A Time to Speak, 59; Birmingham News, April 16, 1959.
110. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959; Birmingham News, April 12, 1959.
111. Birmingham News, April 7, 1959; Birmingham News, April 12, 1959.
112. Birmingham News, April 2, 1959. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
113. Birmingham News, April 2, 1959. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
114. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 12, 1959.
115. Birmingham News, April 23, 1959. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
116. Birmingham News, April 23, 1959. (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
117. Birmingham News, April 28, 1959. Motivations for participation in the consolidation campaign varied among the movement's leaders. Some, such as Charles Morgan, Jr., had enough of Bull Connor's reactionary and racist leadership as commissioner of public safety and felt that Homewood and Mountain Brook's leadership was required to establish a more progressive approach to addressing Birmingham's problems. Others, without being very specific, argued that Birmingham faced an economic crisis that required the business eliteof the two suburbs to be involved more directly in the governance of Birmingham. In an editorial titled "Homewood, Mountain Brook, The Birmingham of Us All," the Birmingham News maintained that the general economic welfare of Birmingham was at stake and that since Homewood and Mountain Brook residents "work in, have [an] economic interest in, the Birmingham proper area," these residents need to join in with the city of Birmingham to address its problems. See Morgan, A Time to Speak, 56; Birmingham News, February 11, 1959 (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
118. Birmingham News, April 28, 1959. Motivations for participation in the consolidation campaign varied among the movement's leaders. Some, such as Charles Morgan, Jr., had enough of Bull Connor's reactionary and racist leadership as commissioner of public safety and felt that Homewood and Mountain Brook's leadership was required to establish a more progressive approach to addressing Birmingham's problems. Others, without being very specific, argued that Birmingham faced an economic crisis that required the business eliteof the two suburbs to be involved more directly in the governance of Birmingham. In an editorial titled "Homewood, Mountain Brook, The Birmingham of Us All," the Birmingham News maintained that the general economic welfare of Birmingham was at stake and that since Homewood and Mountain Brook residents "work in, have [an] economic interest in, the Birmingham proper area," these residents need to join in with the city of Birmingham to address its problems. See Morgan, A Time to Speak, 56; Birmingham News, February 11, 1959 (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
119. Birmingham News, April 28, 1959. Motivations for participation in the consolidation campaign varied among the movement's leaders. Some, such as Charles Morgan, Jr., had enough of Bull Connor's reactionary and racist leadership as commissioner of public safety and felt that Homewood and Mountain Brook's leadership was required to establish a more progressive approach to addressing Birmingham's problems. Others, without being very specific, argued that Birmingham faced an economic crisis that required the business eliteof the two suburbs to be involved more directly in the governance of Birmingham. In an editorial titled "Homewood, Mountain Brook, The Birmingham of Us All," the Birmingham News maintained that the general economic welfare of Birmingham was at stake and that since Homewood and Mountain Brook residents "work in, have [an] economic interest in, the Birmingham proper area," these residents need to join in with the city of Birmingham to address its problems. See Morgan, A Time to Speak, 56; Birmingham News, February 11, 1959 (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
120. Birmingham News, April 28, 1959. Motivations for participation in the consolidation campaign varied among the movement's leaders. Some, such as Charles Morgan, Jr., had enough of Bull Connor's reactionary and racist leadership as commissioner of public safety and felt that Homewood and Mountain Brook's leadership was required to establish a more progressive approach to addressing Birmingham's problems. Others, without being very specific, argued that Birmingham faced an economic crisis that required the business eliteof the two suburbs to be involved more directly in the governance of Birmingham. In an editorial titled "Homewood, Mountain Brook, The Birmingham of Us All," the Birmingham News maintained that the general economic welfare of Birmingham was at stake and that since Homewood and Mountain Brook residents "work in, have [an] economic interest in, the Birmingham proper area," these residents need to join in with the city of Birmingham to address its problems. See Morgan, A Time to Speak, 56; Birmingham News, February 11, 1959 (Copyright, The Birmingham News, 1999. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.)
121. Rice, "The Battle of Buckhead," 9.
122. Temple, Merger Politics, 47-8.
123. Martin, Consolidation, 160-1.
124. Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race (Knoxville, TN, 1984), 240.
125. Birmingham News, May 13, 1959.
126. Robert G. Corley, "In Search of Racial Harmony, Birmingham Business Leaders and Desegregation, 1950-1963," in Elizabeth Jacoway and David R. Colburn, eds., Southern Businessmen and Desegregation (Baton Rouge, 1982), 181-2; David Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change from the Commission to the Mayor-Council Form of Government in Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham, 1981 ), 8-10; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 16, 1962; August 20, 1962.
127. Robert G. Corley, "In Search of Racial Harmony, Birmingham Business Leaders and Desegregation, 1950-1963," in Elizabeth Jacoway and David R. Colburn, eds., Southern Businessmen and Desegregation (Baton Rouge, 1982), 181-2; David Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change from the Commission to the Mayor-Council Form of Government in Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham, 1981 ), 8-10; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 16, 1962; August 20, 1962.
128. Robert G. Corley, "In Search of Racial Harmony, Birmingham Business Leaders and Desegregation, 1950-1963," in Elizabeth Jacoway and David R. Colburn, eds., Southern Businessmen and Desegregation (Baton Rouge, 1982), 181-2; David Vann, Events Leading to the 1963 Change from the Commission to the Mayor-Council Form of Government in Birmingham, Alabama (Birmingham, 1981 ), 8-10; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 16, 1962; August 20, 1962.
129. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 5, 1964; Birmingham News, July 19, 1964; Birmingham News, July 15, 1964; Birmingham News, July 7, 1964; July 3, 1964.
130. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 5, 1964; Birmingham News, July 19, 1964; Birmingham News, July 15, 1964; Birmingham News, July 7, 1964; July 3, 1964.
131. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 5, 1964; Birmingham News, July 19, 1964; Birmingham News, July 15, 1964; Birmingham News, July 7, 1964; July 3, 1964.
132. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 5, 1964; Birmingham News, July 19, 1964; Birmingham News, July 15, 1964; Birmingham News, July 7, 1964; July 3, 1964.
133. Birmingham News, July 14, 1963.
134. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 20, 1964.
135. Community Affairs Committee Biographical Data, c. 1963, City Council Papers, File 3.10, BPL.
136. Locations of Residences of CAC Members, 1963, E. C. Overton Papers, File 1.114, BPL.
137. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 31, 1964; August 13, 1964; August 14, 1964; August 18, 1964. A number of Mountain Brook's well-known leaders, including Alabama Power Company President Walter Bouldin, State Senator Larry Dumas, Southern Natural Gas President Pratt Rather, Birmingham Chamber of Commerce President Frank Newton, former Governor Frank M. Dixon, Rucker Agee (principal of a leading Birmingham securities firm), Frank Spain (principal of one of the city's leading law firms), Amasa Smith (division manager of Chicago Bridge and Iron), and former Mountain Brook Mayor Charles Zukoski, Jr., spoke out on behalf of merger during the 1964 campaign.
138. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 10, 1964; June 12, 1964.
139. Edward S. LaMonte, Politics and Welfare in Birmingham, 1900-1974, (Ph. D. diss., University of Chicago, 1976) 316-7.
140. Mayor and City Council of Birmingham, Contract in Trust, c. 1964.
141. Richmond Flowers to Albert Boutwell, July 21, 1964, Albert Boutwell Papers, File 14.26, BPL; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 23, 1964; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 10, 1964.
142. Richmond Flowers to Albert Boutwell, July 21, 1964, Albert Boutwell Papers, File 14.26, BPL; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 23, 1964; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 10, 1964.
143. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 17, 1964; August 22, 1964; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 26, 1964.
144. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 17, 1964; August 22, 1964; Birmingham Post-Herald, August 26, 1964.
145. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 3, 1964; June 17, 1964; July 10, 1964; July 21, 1964; August 10, 1964; Birmingham News, June 24, 1964. In the August 11, 1964, referendum in Homewood, consolidation at first appeared to be victorious by a vote of 2,423 to 2,417. The election was contested, however, on the basis of several allegations, including the claim that the election lacked the sixty-day notice required under Alabama law. The Alabama Supreme Court ruled on August 25, 1966, that the 1964 election was null and void because of inadequate notice. When a follow-up election was conducted on December 13, 1966, Homewood residents overwhelmingly voted against merger 4,015 to 2,149. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 12, 1964; Birmingham News, December 14, 1966.
146. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 3, 1964; June 17, 1964; July 10, 1964; July 21, 1964; August 10, 1964; Birmingham News, June 24, 1964. In the August 11, 1964, referendum in Homewood, consolidation at first appeared to be victorious by a vote of 2,423 to 2,417. The election was contested, however, on the basis of several allegations, including the claim that the election lacked the sixty-day notice required under Alabama law. The Alabama Supreme Court ruled on August 25, 1966, that the 1964 election was null and void because of inadequate notice. When a follow-up election was conducted on December 13, 1966, Homewood residents overwhelmingly voted against merger 4,015 to 2,149. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 12, 1964; Birmingham News, December 14, 1966.
147. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 3, 1964; June 17, 1964; July 10, 1964; July 21, 1964; August 10, 1964; Birmingham News, June 24, 1964. In the August 11, 1964, referendum in Homewood, consolidation at first appeared to be victorious by a vote of 2,423 to 2,417. The election was contested, however, on the basis of several allegations, including the claim that the election lacked the sixty-day notice required under Alabama law. The Alabama Supreme Court ruled on August 25, 1966, that the 1964 election was null and void because of inadequate notice. When a follow-up election was conducted on December 13, 1966, Homewood residents overwhelmingly voted against merger 4,015 to 2,149. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 12, 1964; Birmingham News, December 14, 1966.
148. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 3, 1964; June 17, 1964; July 10, 1964; July 21, 1964; August 10, 1964; Birmingham News, June 24, 1964. In the August 11, 1964, referendum in Homewood, consolidation at first appeared to be victorious by a vote of 2,423 to 2,417. The election was contested, however, on the basis of several allegations, including the claim that the election lacked the sixty-day notice required under Alabama law. The Alabama Supreme Court ruled on August 25, 1966, that the 1964 election was null and void because of inadequate notice. When a follow-up election was conducted on December 13, 1966, Homewood residents overwhelmingly voted against merger 4,015 to 2,149. Birmingham Post-Herald, August 12, 1964; Birmingham News, December 14, 1966.
149. Interview with Thad Long, attorney to the One Great City Campaign, conducted by Jim Baggett, January 10, 1996; Interview with James White III, member of the One Great City Steering Committee, conducted by Jim Baggett, January 9, 1996; Interview with David Vann, member of the One Great City Steering Committee, conducted by Jim Baggett, January 8, 1996; Interview with David Herring, member of the One Great City Steering Committee, conducted by Jim Baggett, November 29, 1995, all in One Great City Campaign Papers, File 1479, BPL. List of One Great City Steering Committee members obtained from David Herring Papers, File 1381.1.7, BPL.
150. Outline of Consolidation Plan, April 13, 1971, David Vann Papers, File 28.33, BPL; Birmingham News, July 4, 1971.
151. Outline of Presentation of One Great City to Local Government Commission, December 7, 1970, David Vann Papers, File 28.30, BPL.
152. Birmingham News, July 4, 1971.
153. Shades Valley Sun, June 10, 1971.
154. Birmingham Post-Herald, June 8, 1971. (Reprinted with permission.)
155. Birmingham News, July 14, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971.
156. Birmingham News, July 14, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971.
157. Interview with Charles Speir, Chairman, Jefferson County Citizens Committee for Local Self Government, conducted by Jim Baggett, November 9, 1995, One Great City Campaign, File 1479, BPL.
158. Shades Valley Sun, June 10, 1971; June 27, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971; July 15, 1971;
159. Shades Valley Sun, June 10, 1971; June 27, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971; July 15, 1971;
160. Birmingham News, June 30, 1971; July 11, 1971.
161. Birmingham News, June 23, 1971.
162. Research Assistant to Birmingham City Council Members, August 21, 1967, City Council Papers, File 2.1, BPL; Letter to James H. White III from Thad Long, April 1, 1971, David Vann Papers, File 28.32, BPL; Birmingham News, November 20, 1970; March 19, 1971; March 26, 1971; May 28, 1971; August 20, 1971; August 23, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971.
163. Research Assistant to Birmingham City Council Members, August 21, 1967, City Council Papers, File 2.1, BPL; Letter to James H. White III from Thad Long, April 1, 1971, David Vann Papers, File 28.32, BPL; Birmingham News, November 20, 1970; March 19, 1971; March 26, 1971; May 28, 1971; August 20, 1971; August 23, 1971; Birmingham Post-Herald, July 10, 1971.
164. Birmingham News, August 4, 1971.
165. Birmingham News, July 25, 1971.
166. Birmingham News, August 20, 1971; August 31, 1971.
167. Harris, "Annexation Struggles," 174-5. That time, the state's lieutenant governor, who was both a resident of Birmingham and a supporter of the Greater Birmingham movement, was able to use his powers as the presiding officer of the Alabama Senate to prevail over Jefferson County's sole senator, who sought to kill the annexation bill.
168. Coleman B. Ranson, Jr., Alabama Government Manual (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1970), 296-301. Election from districts within counties in Alabama began with the 1974 election. Birmingham News, November 13, 1974. According to the 1970 Census, 53.4 percent of Jefferson County's population lived outside of Birmingham. In a report on Alabama municipal government, Joseph C. Pilegge, Jr. writes, Annexation of outlying territory has been a difficult process for most Alabama municipalities. With the exception of cities in Etowah, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa counties, annexation is accomplished principally by local legislation. This means that the local legislative delegation must assume the political risks associated with annexation procedures.
169. Coleman B. Ranson, Jr., Alabama Government Manual (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1970), 296-301. Election from districts within counties in Alabama began with the 1974 election. Birmingham News, November 13, 1974. According to the 1970 Census, 53.4 percent of Jefferson County's population lived outside of Birmingham. In a report on Alabama municipal government, Joseph C. Pilegge, Jr. writes, Annexation of outlying territory has been a difficult process for most Alabama municipalities. With the exception of cities in Etowah, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa counties, annexation is accomplished principally by local legislation. This means that the local legislative delegation must assume the political risks associated with annexation procedures. Joseph C. Pilegge, Jr., Alabama Municipalities, The Alabama League of Municipalities and Bureau of Public Administration (University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 1972), 75.
170. Coleman B. Ranson, Jr., Alabama Government Manual (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1970), 296-301. Election from districts within counties in Alabama began with the 1974 election. Birmingham News, November 13, 1974. According to the 1970 Census, 53.4 percent of Jefferson County's population lived outside of Birmingham. In a report on Alabama municipal government, Joseph C. Pilegge, Jr. writes, Annexation of outlying territory has been a difficult process for most Alabama municipalities. With the exception of cities in Etowah, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa counties, annexation is accomplished principally by local legislation. This means that the local legislative delegation must assume the political risks associated with annexation procedures. Joseph C. Pilegge, Jr., Alabama Municipalities, The Alabama League of Municipalities and Bureau of Public Administration (University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 1972), 75.
171. Charles Speir Interview, November 9, 1995, BPL.
172. Office of the Clerk-Council, The Effects of Existing Annexation Laws Applicable to Birmingham, Alabama, November 1970, City Council Papers, File 9.35, BPL. The remaining 22.3 square miles were added through special legislative acts. The petition-initiated annexations tended to be small in size; of the sixty-three such annexations between 1910 and 1970, the average size was .15 square miles.
173. Birmingham News, July 12, 1963; Birmingham Post-Herald, February 27, 1971.
174. Birmingham News, July 12, 1963; Birmingham Post-Herald, February 27, 1971.
175. Letter to John E. Bryan from John F. Watkins, July 6, 1971, City Council Papers, File 9.36, BPL.
176. Larry Lavender to City Council President M. E. Wiggins, November 9, 1970, City Council Papers, File 9.35, BPL; David Vann to William H. Brigham, February 14, 1974, David Vann Papers, File 1.12, BPL.
177. David Vann to Don Newton, September 26, 1974, David Vann Papers, File 1.14, BPL.
178. Office of the Clerk-Council, The Effects of Existing Annecation Laws Applicable to Birmingham, Alabama, November 1970, City Council Papers, File 9.35, BPL.
179. Birmingham News, August 4, 1974; August 5, 1974; Paul E. Mayer to David Vann, June 28, 1974, David Vann Papers, File 1.12, BPL; Memo to Birmingham Mayor and Council from David Vann, "An Alternative Approach to Annexation of Unincorporated Areas," no date, City Council Correspondence, File 18.9, BPL. The latter document also notes that use of tax exempt annexation became more feasible as the city had shifted by 1974 from its historic dependence on property taxes to increased reliance on a payroll tax, sales tax, and state and federal revenue sharing, none of which were affected by the tax exemption.
180. Memo to Birmingham Mayor and Council from David Vann, "An Alternative Approach to Annexation of Unincorporated Areas," no date, City Council Correspondence, File 18.9, BPL.
181. Birmingham Post-Herald, March 26, 1975.
182. This strategy bore the risk of gerrymandering. The Alabama Supreme Court threw out the Pinson Valley annexation, ruling that Birmingham had practiced gerrymandering by employing citizen surveys to determine which areas should be included in the annexation. Birmingham News, June 26, 1976.
183. Birmingham News, April 7, 1975; Shades Valley Sun, March 9, 1977; Birmingham News, October 12, 1976.
184. Birmingham News, April 7, 1975; Shades Valley Sun, March 9, 1977; Birmingham News, October 12, 1976.
185. Birmingham News, April 7, 1975; Shades Valley Sun, March 9, 1977; Birmingham News, October 12, 1976.
186. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 2, 1976; Birmingham News, June 6, 1979.
187. Birmingham Post-Herald, July 2, 1976; Birmingham News, June 6, 1979.
188. Birmingham Post-Herald, January 4, 1975.
189. David Vann Speech to Birmingham Press Club, March 28, 1975, David Vann Papers, File 1.19, BPL.
190. Sidney Smyer to David Vann, October 25, 1974, David Vann Papers, File 1.14, BPL. Ironically, the Birmingham Realty Company is the successor to the Elyton Land Company, the original land investor in Birmingham in 1871. David Vann Speech to Birmingham Press Club, March 28, 1975, David Vann Papers, File 1.19, BPL.
191. White, The Birmingham District, 137; David Vann Speech to Birmingham Press Club, March 28, 1975, David Vann Papers, File 1.19, BPL; Birmingham News, March 26, 1975.
192. White, The Birmingham District, 137; David Vann Speech to Birmingham Press Club, March 28, 1975, David Vann Papers, File 1.19, BPL; Birmingham News, March 26, 1975.
193. Birmingham Post-Herald, April 8, 1975; Birmingham News, September 17, 1976.
194. Birmingham Post-Herald, April 8, 1975; Birmingham News, September 17, 1976.
195. Birmingham News, February 14, 1975; February 25, 1975; February 27, 1975; April 16, 1975.
196. Birmingham News, May 25, 1979.
197. Birmingham News, July 16, 1985.
198. Birmingham News, May 13, 1985; August 14, 1985.
199. USX (formerly U.S. Steel) has set aside about twenty thousand acres of its Birmingham area holdings for real estate development. Birmingham News, April 29, 1992.
200. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 18, 1985; Birmingham News, April 19, 1985. In the small black community of Dolomite, residents voted for annexation because they wanted basic public services that they had been unable to obtain from nearby, predominantly white jurisdictions that had been uninterested in annexing them.
201. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 18, 1985; Birmingham News, April 19, 1985. In the small black community of Dolomite, residents voted for annexation because they wanted basic public services that they had been unable to obtain from nearby, predominantly white jurisdictions that had been uninterested in annexing them.
202. Birmingham News, March 10, 1985; March 12, 1985; April 17, 1985; May 10, 1985, May 13, 1985; May 14 1985; May 5, 1987. Former Mayor David Vann, who had become Birmingham's chief attorney for annexations, also was chairman of the Birmingham Water Works Board.
203. Birmingham News, August 14, 1985; October 21, 1985; October 3, 1987; March 27, 1988.
204. Woodward, Origins of the New South, 291-320. In fact, Woodward's discussion of the colonial economy is based in part on the Birmingham experience with "Pittsburgh Plus" and the "Birmingham Differential," the pricing mechanisms employed by U.S. Steel that artificially raised Birmingham steel prices to the same level as those in Pittsburgh.
205. Memphis; New Orleans; Baltimore; Washington, DC; Atlanta; Newark; and Detroit.
206. Birmingham News, June 12, 1994.
207. Birmingham News, August 29, 1995; August 31, 1995. The city deannexed and then reannexed the land so that the company could enjoy a fifteen-year property tax exemption.
208. HOH Associates, Oxmoor, 17.
209. Ibid., 27.
210. Birmingham News, August 13, 1995; January 5, 1997; Birmingham Post-Herald, December 28, 1996.
211. Birmingham News, August 13, 1995; January 5, 1997; Birmingham Post-Herald, December 28, 1996.
212. HOH Associates, Oxmoor, 49; Birmingham News, May 7, 1995; telephone interview with Janice Johnson, Metropolitan Development Board, Birmingham, Alabama, January 1997.
213. HOH Associates, Oxmoor, 49; Birmingham News, May 7, 1995; telephone interview with Janice Johnson, Metropolitan Development Board, Birmingham, Alabama, January 1997.
214. Birmingham News, April 14, 1997.