Adaptations and mechanisms of human heat acclimation: Applications for competitive athletes and sports

Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports

Volumn 25, Issue S1, 2015, Pages 20-38

  Periard J D ^a   Racinais, S ^a   Sawka, M N ^b  

^a ASPETAR ORTHOPAEDIC AND SPORTS MEDICINE HOSPITAL   (Qatar)

^b GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Exercise performance; Fluid balance; Heat acclimatization; Thermal tolerance; Thermoregulation

Indexed keywords

ACCLIMATIZATION; ADVERSE EFFECTS; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HEAT; HEAT STRESS DISORDERS; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; SPORT; SWEATING; THERMOREGULATION;

ACCLIMATIZATION; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HEAT STRESS DISORDERS; HOT TEMPERATURE; HUMANS; SPORTS; SWEATING; WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE;

EID: 84928819666     PISSN: 09057188     EISSN: 16000838     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/sms.12408     Document Type: Review

References (197)

1. Adolph EF. Physiology of man in the desert. New York: Interscience, 1947: 1-357.
2. Adolph EF. Perspectives of adaptation: some general properties. In: Dill DB, Adolph EF, eds. Handbook of physiology section 4 adaptation to the environment. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society, 1964: 27-35.
3. Adolph EF, Dill DB. Observations on water metabolism in the desert. Am J Physiol 1938: 123: 369-378.
4. Allan JR, Wilson CG. Influence of acclimatization on sweat sodium concentration. J Appl Physiol 1971: 30: 708-712.
5. Armstrong LE, Hubbard RW, DeLuca JP, Christensen EL. Self-paced heat acclimation procedures. Natick, MA: 1986.
6. Armstrong LE, Hubbard RW, Szlyk PC, Matthew WT, Silsm IV. Voluntary dehydration and electrolyte losses during prolonged exercise in the heat. Aviat Space Environ Med 1985: 56: 765-770.
7. Armstrong LE, Pandolf KB. Physical training, cardiorespiratory physical fitness and exercise-heat tolerance. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, eds. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press, 1988: 199-226.
8. Asea A. Mechanisms of HSP72 release. J Biosci 2007: 32: 579-584.
9. Avellini BA, Shapiro Y, Fortney SM, Wenger CB, Pandolf KB. Effects on heat tolerance of physical training in water and on land. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1982: 53: 1291-1298.
10. Barcroft J, Binger CA, Bock AV, Doggert JH, Fornbes HS, Harrop G, Meakins JC, Redfield AC. On the relation of external temperature to blood volume. 221: B, 1922.
11. Barnett A, Maughan RJ. Response of unacclimatized males to repeated weekly bouts of exercise in the heat. Br J Sports Med 1993: 27: 39-44.
12. Bass DE, Kleeman CR, Quinn M, Henschel A, Hegnauer AH. Mechanisms of acclimatization to heat in man. Medicine 1955: 34: 323-380.
13. Bazett HC, Sunderman J, Doupe J, Scott JC. Climatic effects on the volume and composition of blood in man. Am J Physiol 1940: 129: 69-83.
14. Bean WB, Eichna LW. Performance in relation to environmental temperature. Reactions of normal young men to simulated desert environment. Fed Proc 1943: 2: 144-158.
15. Beaudin AE, Clegg ME, Walsh ML, White MD. Adaptation of exercise ventilation during an actively-induced hyperthermia following passive heat acclimation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009: 297: R605-R614.
16. Bergeron MF, Bahr R, Bartsch P, Bourdon L, Calbet JA, Carlsen KH, Castagna O, Gonzalez-Alonso J, Lundby C, Maughan RJ, Millet G, Mountjoy M, Racinais S, Rasmussen P, Singh DG, Subudhi AW, Young AJ, Soligard T, Engebretsen L. International Olympic Committee consensus statement on thermoregulatory and altitude challenges for high-level athletes. Br J Sports Med 2012: 46: 770-779.
17. Berlyne GM, Finberg JP, Yoran C. The effect of β-adrenoceptor blockade on body temperature and plasma renin activity in heat-exposed man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1974: 4: 307-312.
18. Bligh J. Acclimatization to heat and cold. In: Bligh J, ed. Temperature regulation in mammals and other vertebrates. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1973: 271-287.
19. Boulant JA. Hypothalamic neurons regulating body temperature. In: Fregly MJ, Blatteis CM, eds. Handbook of physiology, section 4, environmental physiology. New York: Oxford Press, 1996: 105-125.
20. Brazaitis M, Skurvydas A. Heat acclimation does not reduce the impact of hyperthermia on central fatigue. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010: 109: 771-778.
21. Brooks CMC. The nature of adaptive reactions and their initiation. In: Bajusz E, ed. Physiology and pathology of adaptation mechanisms: neural, neuroendocrine, humoral. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1969: 439-451.
22. Bruchim Y, Aroch I, Eliav A, Abbas A, Frank I, Kelmer E, Codner C, Segev G, Epstein Y, Horowitz M. Two years of combined high-intensity physical training and heat acclimatization affect lymphocyte and serum HSP70 in purebred military working dogs. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014: 117: 112-118.
23. Brück K, Zeisberger E. Adaptive changes in thermoregulation and their neuropharmacological basis. In: Schönbaum E, Lomax P, eds. Thermoregulation: physiology and biochemistry. New York: Pergamon Press, 1990: 255-307.
24. Buchheit M, Racinais S, Bilsborough J, Hocking J, Mendez-Villanueva A, Bourdon PC, Voss S, Livingston S, Christian R, Périard J, Cordy J, Coutts AJ. Adding heat to the live-high train-low altitude model: a practical insight from professional football. Br J Sports Med 2013: 47 (Suppl. 1): i59-i69.
25. Buchheit M, Voss SC, Nybo L, Mohr M, Racinais S. Physiological and performance adaptations to an in-season soccer camp in the heat: associations with heart rate and heart rate variability. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: e477-e485.
26. Buono MJ, Martha SL, Heaney JH. Peripheral sweat gland function is improved with humid heat acclimation. J Therm Biol 2009a: 34: 127-130.
27. Buono MJ, Numan TR, Claros RM, Brodine SK, Kolkhorst FW. Is active sweating during heat acclimation required for improvements in peripheral sweat gland function? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009b: 297: R1082-R1085.
28. Buskirk ER, Iampietro PF, Bass DE. Work performance after dehydration: effects of physical conditioning and heat acclimatization. J Appl Physiol 1958: 12: 189-194.
29. Candas V. Adaptation to extreme environments. Thermophysiological changes in man during humid heat acclimation. In: Dejours P, ed. Comparative physiology of environmental adaptations. Basel: Karger, 1987: 76-93.
30. Chalmers S, Esterman A, Eston R, Bowering KJ, Norton K. Short-term heat acclimation training improves physical performance: a systematic review, and exploration of physiological adaptations and application for team sports. Sports Med 2014: 44: 971-988.
31. Chen WY, Elizondo RS. Peripheral modification of thermoregulatory function during heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1974: 37: 367-373.
32. Cheung SS, McLellan TM. Heat acclimation, aerobic fitness, and hydration effects on tolerance during uncompensable heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1998: 84: 1731-1739.
33. Chinevere TD, Kenefick RW, Cheuvront SN, Lukaski HC, Sawka MN. Effect of heat acclimation on sweat minerals. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008: 40: 886-891.
34. Convertino VA. Blood volume: its adaptation to endurance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991: 23: 1338-1348.
35. Corbett J, Neal RA, Lunt HC, Tipton MJ. Adaptation to heat and exercise performance under cooler conditions: a new hot topic. Sports Med 2014: 44: 1323-1331.
36. Cotter JD, Patterson MJ, Taylor NAS. Sweat distribution before and after repeated heat exposure. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997: 76: 181-186.
37. Davies CT. Effect of acclimatization to heat on the regulation of sweating during moderate and severe exercise. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1981: 50: 741-746.
38. De Maio A, Vazquez D. Extracellular heat shock proteins: a new location, a new function. Shock 2013: 40: 239-246.
39. Dill DB, Hall FG, Edwards HT. Changes in composition of sweat during acclimatization to heat. Am J Physiol 1938: 123: 412-419.
40. Dill DB, Jones BF, Edwards HT, Oberg SA. Salt economy in extreme dry heat. J Biol Chem 1933: 100: 755-767.
41. Doupe J, Ferguson MH, Hildes JA. Seasonal fluctuations in blood volume. Can J Biochem Physiol 1957: 35: 203-213.
42. Dresoti AO. The results of some investigations into the medical aspects of deep mining on the Witwatersrand. J Chem Metall Min Soc S Afr 1935: 6: 102-129.
43. Edholm OG. The physiology of adaptation. Eugen Rev 1966: 58: 136-142.
44. Eichna LW, Bean WB, Ashe WF, Nelson NG. Performance in relation to environmental temperature. Reactions of normal young men to hot, humid (simulated jungle) environment. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1945: 76: 25058.
45. Eichna LW, Park CR, Nelson N, Horvath SM, Palmes ED. Thermal regulation during acclimatization in a hot, dry (desert type) environment. Am J Physiol 1950: 163: 585-597.
46. Ely BR, Ely MR, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW, Degroot DW, Montain SJ. Evidence against a 40 degrees C core temperature threshold for fatigue in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009: 107: 1519-1525.
47. Febbraio MA, Koukoulas I. HSP72 gene expression progressively increases in human skeletal muscle during prolonged, exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol 2000: 89: 1055-1060.
48. Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Hargreaves M, Stathis CG, Martin IK, Carey MF. Muscle metabolism during exercise and heat stress in trained men: effect of acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1994a: 76: 589-597.
49. Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Stathis CG, Hargreaves M, Carey MF. Effect of heat stress on muscle energy metabolism during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994b: 77: 2827-2831.
50. Fein JT, Haymes EM, Buskirk ER. Effects of daily and intermittent exposures on heat acclimation of women. Int J Biometeorol 1975: 19: 41-52.
51. Folk GE. Textbook of environmental physiology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1974: 1-468.
52. Fox RH, Goldsmith R, Hampton IF, Hunt TJ. Heat acclimatization by controlled hyperthermia in hot-dry and hot-wet climates. J Appl Physiol 1967: 22: 39-46.
53. Fox RH, Goldsmith R, Hampton IF, Lewis HE. The nature of the increase in sweating capacity produced by heat acclimatization. J Physiol 1964: 171: 368-376.
54. Fox RH, Goldsmith R, Kidd DJ, Lewis HE. Acclimatization to heat in man by controlled elevation of body temperature. J Physiol 1963a: 166: 530-547.
55. Fox RH, Goldsmith R, Kidd DJ, Lewis HE. Blood flow and other thermoregulatory changes with acclimatization to heat. J Physiol 1963b: 166: 548-562.
56. Galloway SD, Maughan RJ. Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997: 29: 1240-1249.
57. Gardner JW, Kark JA, Karnei K, Sanborn JS, Gastaldo E, Burr P, Wenger CB. Risk factors predicting exertional heat illness in male Marine Corps recruits. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996: 28: 939-944.
58. Garrett AT, Creasy R, Rehrer NJ, Patterson MJ, Cotter JD. Effectiveness of short-term heat acclimation for highly trained athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012: 112: 1827-1837.
59. Garrett AT, Goosens NG, Rehrer NJ, Patterson MJ, Cotter JD. Induction and decay of short-term heat acclimation. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009: 107: 659-670.
60. Garrett AT, Goosens NG, Rehrer NJ, Patterson MJ, Harrison J, Sammut I, Cotter JD. Short-term heat acclimation is effective and may be enhanced rather than impaired by dehydration. Am J Hum Biol 2014: 26: 311-320.
61. Garrett AT, Rehrer NJ, Patterson MJ. Induction and decay of short-term heat acclimation in moderately and highly trained athletes. Sports Med 2011: 41: 757-771.
62. Gill N, Sleivert G. Effect of daily vs intermittent exposure on heat acclimation. Aviat Space Environ Med 2001: 72: 385-390.
63. Gisolfi CV, Wenger CB. Temperature regulation during exercise: old concepts, new ideas. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1984: 12: 339-372.
64. Givoni B, Goldman RF. Predicting rectal temperature response to work, environment, and clothing. J Appl Physiol 1972: 32: 812-822.
65. Gonzalez RR, Gagge AP. Warm discomfort and associated thermoregulatory changes during dry, and humid-heat acclimatization. Isr J Med Sci 1976: 12: 804-807.
66. Gonzalez RR, Pandolf KB, Gagge AP. Heat acclimation and decline in sweating during humidity transients. J Appl Physiol 1974: 36: 419-425.
67. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, Jensen FB, Hyldig T, Nielsen B. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1999: 86: 1032-1039.
68. Goto M, Okazaki K, Kamijo Y, Ikegawa S, Masuki S, Miyagawa K, Nose H. Protein and carbohydrate supplementation during 5-day aerobic training enhanced plasma volume expansion and thermoregulatory adaptation in young men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2010: 109: 1247-1255.
69. Greenleaf JE. Problem: thirst, drinking behavior, and involuntary dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992: 24: 645-656.
70. Greenleaf JE, Brock PJ, Keil LC, Morse JT. Drinking and water balance during exercise and heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1983: 54: 414-419.
71. Greenleaf JE, Sargeant FI. Voluntary dehydration in man. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1965: 20: 719-724.
72. Griefahn B. Acclimation to three different hot climates with equivalent wet bulb globe temperatures. Ergonomics 1997: 40: 223-234.
73. Hammel HT, Jackson DC, Stolwijk JA, Hardy JD, Stromme SB. Temperature regulation by hypothalamic proportional control with an adjustable set point. J Appl Physiol 1963: 18: 1146-1154.
74. Harrison MH. Effects on thermal stress and exercise on blood volume in humans. Physiol Rev 1985: 65: 149-209.
75. Hellon RF, Jones RM, Macpherson RK, Weiner JS. Natural and artificial acclimatization to hot environments. J Physiol 1956: 132: 559-576.
76. Henane R, Flandrois R, Charbonnier JP. Increase in sweating sensitivity by endurance conditioning in man. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1977: 43: 822-828.
77. Henschel A, Taylor HL, Keys A. The persistence of heat acclimatization in man. Am J Physiol 1943: 140: 321-325.
78. Hensel H. Neural processes in thermoregulation. Physiol Rev 1973: 53: 984-1017.
79. Hodge D, Jones D, Martinez R, Buono MJ. Time course of the attenuation of sympathetic nervous activity during active heat acclimation. Auton Neurosci 2013: 177: 101-103.
80. Hom LL, Lee EC, Apicella JM, Wallace SD, Emmanuel H, Klau JF, Poh PY, Marzano S, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Maresh CM. Eleven days of moderate exercise and heat exposure induces acclimation without significant HSP70 and apoptosis responses of lymphocytes in college-aged males. Cell Stress Chaperones 2012: 17: 29-39.
81. Hori S. Adaptation to heat. Jpn J Physiol 1995: 45: 921-946.
82. Horowitz M. Do cellular heat acclimation responses modulate central thermoregulatory activity? News Physiol Sci 1998: 13: 218-225.
83. Horowitz M. Heat acclimation, epigenetics, and cytoprotection memory. Compr Physiol 2014: 4: 199-230.
84. Horowitz M, Peyser YM, Muhlrad A. Alterations in cardiac myosin isoenzymes distribution as an adaptation to chronic environmental heat stress in the rat. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1986: 18: 511-515.
85. Horowitz M, Robinson SDM. Heat shock proteins and the heat shock response during hyperthermia and its modulation by altered physiological conditions. Prog Brain Res 2007: 162: 433-446.
86. Horvath SM, Shelley WB. Acclimatization to extreme heat and its effect on the ability to work in less severe environments. Am J Physiol 1946: 146: 336-343.
87. Houmard JA, Costill DL, Davis JA, Mitchell JB, Pascoe DD, Robergs R. The influence of exercise intensity on heat acclimation in trained subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990: 22: 615-620.
88. Höfler W. Changes in regional distribution of sweating during acclimatization to heat. J Appl Physiol 1968: 25: 503-506.
89. Hue O, Antoine-Jonville S, Sara F. The effect of 8 days of training in tropical environment on performance in neutral climate in swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2007: 28: 48-52.
90. Inoue Y, Havenith G, Kenney WL, Loomis JL, Buskirk ER. Exercise- and methylcholine-induced sweating responses in older and younger men: effect of heat acclimation and aerobic fitness. Int J Biometeorol 1999: 42: 210-216.
91. Kenefick RW, Sollanek KJ, Charkoudian N, Sawka MN. Impact of skin temperature and hydration on plasma volume responses during exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014: 117: 413-420.
92. King DS, Costill DL, Fink WJ, Hargreaves M, Fielding RA. Muscle metabolism during exercise in the heat in unacclimatized and acclimatized humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1985: 59: 1350-1354.
93. Kirwan JP, Costill DL, Kuipers H, Burrell MJ, Fink WJ, Kovaleski JE, Fielding RA. Substrate utilization in leg muscle of men after heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1987: 63: 31-35.
94. Kodesh E, Nesher N, Simaan A, Hochner B, Beeri R, Gilon D, Stern MD, Gerstenblith G, Horowitz M. Heat acclimation and exercise training interact when combined in an overriding and trade-off manner: physiologic-genomic linkage. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011: 301: R1786-R1797.
95. Kregel KC. Heat shock proteins: modifying factors in physiological stress responses and acquired thermotolerance. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002: 92: 2177-2186.
96. Kuennen M, Gillum T, Dokladny K, Bedrick E, Schneider S, Moseley P. Thermotolerance and heat acclimation may share a common mechanism in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011: 301: R524-R533.
97. Ladell WS. Assessment of group acclimatization to heat and humidity. J Physiol 1951: 115: 296-312.
98. Lemaire R. Considérations physiologiques sur la climatisation en milieu désertique. In: Journees d'Inf Med Soc Sahariennes. Paris: Phuza A.M.G., 1960: 101-112.
99. Lind AR. Physiologic responses to heat. In: Licht S, ed. Medical climatology. Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press, 1964: 164-195.
100. Lind AR, Bass DE. Optimal exposure time for development of acclimatization to heat. Fed Proc 1963: 22: 704-708.
101. Lind J. An essay on diseases incidental to Europeans in hot climates with the method of preventing their fatal consequences. London: Becket De Hondt, 1768: 1-348.
102. Locke M. The cellular stress response to exercise: role of stress proteins. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1997: 25: 105-136.
103. Lorenzo S, Halliwill JR, Sawka MN, Minson CT. Heat acclimation improves exercise performance. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2010: 109: 1140-1147.
104. Lorenzo S, Minson CT. Heat acclimation improves cutaneous vascular function and sweating in trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2010: 109: 1736-1743.
105. Mack GW, Nadel ER. Body fluid balance during heat stress in humans. In: Fregly MJ, Blatteis CM, eds. Environmental physiology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996: 187-214.
106. Magalhaes FC, Amorim FT, Passos RL, Fonseca MA, Oliveira KP, Lima MR, Guimaraes JB, Ferreira-Junior JB, Martini AR, Lima NR, Soares DD, Oliveira EM, Rodrigues LO. Heat and exercise acclimation increases intracellular levels of Hsp72 and inhibits exercise-induced increase in intracellular and plasma Hsp72 in humans. Cell Stress Chaperones 2010: 15: 885-895.
107. Maloyan A, Palmon A, Horowitz M. Heat acclimation increases the basal HSP72 level and alters its production dynamics during heat stress. Am J Physiol 1999: 276: R1506-R1515.
108. Marshall HC, Campbell SA, Roberts CW, Nimmo MA. Human physiological and heat shock protein 72 adaptations during the initial phase of humid-heat acclimation. J Therm Biol 2007: 32: 341-348.
109. Marshall HC, Ferguson RA, Nimmo MA. Human resting extracellular heat shock protein 72 concentration decreases during the initial adaptation to exercise in a hot, humid environment. Cell Stress Chaperones 2006: 11: 129-134.
110. McClung JP, Hasday JD, He JR, Montain SJ, Cheuvront SN, Sawka MN, Singh IS. Exercise-heat acclimation in humans alters baseline levels and ex vivo heat inducibility of HSP72 and HSP90 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008: 294: R185-R191.
111. Mora-Rodriguez R. Influence of aerobic fitness on thermoregulation during exercise in the heat. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2012: 40: 79-87.
112. Mora-Rodriguez R, Del Coso J, Hamouti N, Estevez E, Ortega JF. Aerobically trained individuals have greater increases in rectal temperature than untrained ones during exercise in the heat at similar relative intensities. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010: 109: 973-981.
113. Morimoto T. Thermoregulation and body fluids: role of blood volume and central venous pressure. Jpn J Physiol 1990: 40: 165-179.
114. Moseley PL. Heat shock proteins and heat adaptation of the whole organism. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1997: 83: 1413-1417.
115. Nadel ER. Problems with temperature regulation during exercise. New York, NY: Academic Press Inc., 1977: 98-109.
116. Nadel ER, Mitchell JW, Saltin B, Stolwijk JA. Peripheral modifications to the central drive for sweating. J Appl Physiol 1971: 31: 828-833.
117. Nadel ER, Pandolf KB, Roberts MF, Stolwijk JA. Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat. J Appl Physiol 1974: 37: 515-520.
118. Nelms JD, Turk J. A self-regulating method for rapid acclimatization to heat. J Physiol 1972: 221: 2P-3P.
119. Nielsen B, Hales JR, Strange S, Christensen NJ, Warberg J, Saltin B. Human circulatory and thermoregulatory adaptations with heat acclimation and exercise in a hot, dry environment. J Physiol 1993: 460: 467-485.
120. Nielsen B, Strange S, Christensen NJ, Warberg J, Saltin B. Acute and adaptive responses in humans to exercise in a warm, humid environment. Pflugers Arch 1997: 434: 49-56.
121. Noble EG, Milne KJ, Melling CW. Heat shock proteins and exercise: a primer. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2008: 33: 1050-1065.
122. Nose H, Mack GW, Shi XR, Nadel ER. Shift in body fluid compartments after dehydration in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1988: 65: 318-324.
123. Nybo L, Rasmussen P, Sawka MN. Performance in the heat - physiological factors of importance for hyperthermia-induced fatigue. Compr Physiol 2014: 4: 657-689.
124. Ogawa T, Asayama M, Miyagawa T. Effects of sweat gland training by repeated local heating. Jpn J Physiol 1982: 32: 971-981.
125. Pandolf KB. Time course of heat acclimation and its decay. Int J Sports Med 1998: 19: S157-S160.
126. Pandolf KB, Burse RL, Goldman RF. Role of physical fitness in heat acclimatisation, decay and reinduction. Ergonomics 1977: 20: 399-408.
127. Pandolf KB, Young AJ. Environmental extremes and endurance performance. In: Astraud PO, Sheppard RJ, eds. Endurance in sport. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., 1992: 270-282.
128. Patterson MJ, Stocks JM, Taylor NA. Sustained and generalized extracellular fluid expansion following heat acclimation. J Physiol 2004a: 559: 327-334.
129. Patterson MJ, Stocks JM, Taylor NA. Whole-body fluid distribution in humans during dehydration and recovery, before and after humid-heat acclimation induced using controlled hyperthermia. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2014: 210: 899-912.
130. Patterson MJ, Stocks JM, Taylor NAS. Humid heat acclimation does not elicit a preferential sweat redistribution toward the limbs. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004b: 286: R512-R518.
131. Périard JD. Cardiovascular determinants involved in pacing under heat stress. Sports Med 2013: 43: 643-645.
132. Périard JD, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. Central and peripheral fatigue during passive and exercise-induced hyperthermia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011a: 43: 1657-1665.
133. Périard JD, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. The role of aerobic fitness and exercise intensity on endurance performance in uncompensable heat stress conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012a: 112: 1989-1999.
134. Périard JD, Cramer MN, Chapman PG, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. Cardiovascular strain impairs prolonged self-paced exercise in the heat. Exp Physiol 2011b: 96: 134-144.
135. Périard JD, Ruell P, Caillaud C, Thompson MW. Plasma Hsp72 (HSPA1A) and Hsp27 (HSPB1) expression under heat stress: influence of exercise intensity. Cell Stress Chaperones 2012b: 17: 375-383.
136. Pockley AG. Heat shock proteins as regulators of the immune response. Lancet 2003: 362: 469-476.
137. Pugh LG, Corbett JL, Johnson RH. Rectal temperatures, weight losses, and sweat rates in marathon running. J Appl Physiol 1967: 23: 347-352.
138. Racinais S, Buchheit M, Bilsborough J, Bourdon PC, Cordy J, Coutts AJ. Physiological and performance responses to a training-camp in the heat in professional Australian football players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014: 9: 598-603.
139. Racinais S, Mohr M, Buchheit M, Voss SC, Gaoua N, Grantham J, Nybo L. Individual responses to short-term heat acclimatisation as predictors of football performance in a hot, dry environment. Br J Sports Med 2012: 46: 810-815.
140. Racinais S, Périard JD, Karlsen A, Nybo L. Effect of heat and heat-acclimatization on cycling time-trial performance and pacing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2015: 47: 601-606.
141. Regan JM, Macfarlane DJ, Taylor NA. An evaluation of the role of skin temperature during heat adaptation. Acta Physiol Scand 1996: 158: 365-375.
142. Roberts MF, Wenger CB, Stolwijk JA, Nadel ER. Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1977: 43: 133-137.
143. Robinson S. Temperature regulation in exercise. Pediatrics 1963: 32: 691-702.
144. Robinson S, Turell ES, Belding HS, Horvath SM. Rapid acclimatization to work in hot climates. Am J Physiol 1943: 140: 168-176.
145. Romanovsky AA. Thermoregulation: some concepts have changed. Functional architecture of the thermoregulatory system. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007: 292: R37-R46.
146. Rowell LB. Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev 1974: 54: 75-159.
147. Rowell LB, Brengelmann GL, Blackmon JR, Twiss RD, Kusumi F. Splanchnic blood flow and metabolism in heat-stressed man. J Appl Physiol 1968: 24: 475-484.
148. Rowell LB, Kranning KK, Kennedy JW, Evans TO. Central circulatory responses to work in dry heat before and after acclimatization. J Appl Physiol 1967: 22: 509-518.
149. Rowell LB, Marx HJ, Bruce RA, Conn RD, Kusumi F. Reductions in cardiac output, central blood volume, and stroke volume with thermal stress in normal men during exercise. J Clin Invest 1966: 45: 1801-1816.
150. Saat M, Sirisinghe RG, Singh R, Tochihara Y. Decay of heat acclimation during exercise in cold and exposure to cold environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005: 95: 313-320.
151. Sandstrom ME, Siegler JC, Lovell RJ, Madden LA, McNaughton L. The effect of 15 consecutive days of heat-exercise acclimation on heat shock protein 70. Cell Stress Chaperones 2008: 13: 169-175.
152. Sato F, Owen M, Matthes R, Sato K, Gisolfi CV. Functional and morphological changes in the eccrine sweat gland with heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1990: 69: 232-236.
153. Sato K, Dobson RL. Regional and individual variations in the function of the human eccrine sweat gland. J Invest Dermatol 1970: 54: 443-449.
154. Sato K, Dobson RL, Mali JW. Enzymatic basis for the active transport of sodium in the eccrine sweat gland. Localization and characterization of Na-K-adenosine triphosphatase. J Invest Dermatol 1971: 57: 10-16.
155. Sato K, Sato F. Individual variations in structure and function of human eccrine sweat gland. Am J Physiol 1983: 245: R203-R208.
156. Sawka MN, Coyle EF. Influence of body water and blood volume on thermoregulatory and exercise performance in the heat. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1999: 27: 167-218.
157. Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Young AJ, Pandolf KB. Influence of hydration level and body fluids on exercise performance in the heat. JAMA 1984: 252: 1165-1169.
158. Sawka MN, Latzka WA, Montain SJ, Cadarette BS, Kolka MA, Kraning KK II, Gonzalez RR. Physiologic tolerance to uncompensable heat: intermittent exercise, field vs laboratory. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001: 33: 422-430.
159. Sawka MN, Leon LR, Montain SJ, Sonna LA. Integrated physiological mechanisms of exercise performance, adaptation, and maladaptation to heat stress. Compr Physiol 2011: 1: 1883-1928.
160. Sawka MN, Pandolf KB, Avellini BA, Shapiro Y. Does heat acclimation lower the rate of metabolism elicited by muscular exercise? Aviat Space Environ Med 1983a: 54: 27-31.
161. Sawka MN, Toner MM, Francesconi RP, Pandolf KB. Hypohydration and exercise: effects of heat acclimation, gender, and environment. J Appl Physiol 1983b: 55: 1147-1153.
162. Sawka MN, Wenger CB, Pandolf KB. Thermoregulatory responses to acute exercise-heat stress and heat acclimation. In: Fregly MJ, Blatteis CM, eds. Handbook of physiology, section 4, environmental physiology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996: 157-185.
163. Sawka MN, Young AJ. Exercise in hot and cold climates. In: Garrett WE, Kirkendall DT, eds. Exercise and sport science. Philadelphia, PA: Williams and Wilkins, 2000: 385-400.
164. Sawka MN, Young AJ, Cadarette BS, Levine L, Pandolf KB. Influence of heat stress and acclimation on maximal aerobic power. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1985: 53: 294-298.
165. Sawka MN, Young AJ, Latzka WA, Neufer PD, Quigley MD, Pandolf KB. Human tolerance to heat strain during exercise: influence of hydration. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1992: 73: 368-375.
166. Scoon GS, Hopkins WG, Mayhew S, Cotter JD. Effect of post-exercise sauna bathing on the endurance performance of competitive male runners. J Sci Med Sport 2007: 10: 259-262.
167. Selkirk GA, McLellan TM. Influence of aerobic fitness and body fatness on tolerance to uncompensable heat stress. J Appl Physiol 2001: 91: 2055-2063.
168. Senay LC, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH. Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: body fluid adjustments. J Appl Physiol 1976: 40: 786-796.
169. Senay LCJ. Effects of exercise in the heat on body fluid distribution. Med Sci Sports 1979: 11: 42-48.
170. Shapiro Y, Hubbard RW, Kimbrough CM, Pandolf KB. Physiological and hematologic responses to summer and winter dry-heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1981: 50: 792-798.
171. Shapiro Y, Moran D, Epstein Y. Acclimatization strategies - preparing for exercise in the heat. Int J Sports Med 1998: 19: S161-S163.
172. Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Avellini BA, Pimental NA, Goldman RF. Physiological responses of men and women to humid and dry heat. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1980: 49: 1-8.
173. Shido O, Sugimoto N, Tanabe M, Sakurada S. Core temperature and sweating onset in humans acclimated to heat given at a fixed daily time. Am J Physiol 1999: 276: R1095-R1101.
174. Shvartz E, Bhattacharya A, Sperinde SJ, Brock PJ, Sciaraffa D, Van Beaumont W. Sweating responses during heat acclimation and moderate conditioning. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1979: 46: 675-680.
175. Shvartz E, Saar E, Meyerstein N, Benor D. A comparison of three methods of acclimation to dry heat. J Appl Physiol 1973: 34: 214-219.
176. Shvartz E, Shapiro Y, Magazanik A, Meroz A, Birnfeld H, Mechtinger A, Shibolet S. Heat acclimation, physical fitness, and responses to exercise in temperate and hot environments. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1977: 43: 678-683.
177. Skidmore R, Gutierrez JA, Guerriero V Jr, Kregel KC. HSP70 induction during exercise and heat stress in rats: role of internal temperature. Am J Physiol 1995: 268: R92-R97.
178. Sonna LA, Gaffin SL, Pratt RE, Cullivan ML, Angel KC, Lilly CM. Selected contribution: effect of acute heat shock on gene expression by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Appl Physiol 2001: 92: 2208-2220.
179. Stephenson LA, Kolka MA. Effect of gender, circadian period and sleep loss on thermal responses during exercise. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, eds. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press, 1988: 267-304.
180. Strydom NB, Wyndham CH, Williams CG, Morrison JF, Bredell GA, Benade AJ, Von Rahden M. Acclimatization to humid heat and the role of physical conditioning. J Appl Physiol 1966: 21: 636-642.
181. Sundstroem ES. The physiological effects of tropical climates. Physiol Rev 1927: 7: 320-362.
182. Takamata A, Yoshida T, Nishida N, Morimoto T. Relationship of osmotic inhibition in thermoregulatory responses and sweat sodium concentration in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2001: 280: R623-R629.
183. Taylor NAS. Principles and practices of heat adaptation. J Hum Environ Sys 2000: 4: 11-22.
184. Taylor NAS. Human heat adaptation. Compr Physiol 2014: 4: 325-365.
185. Taylor NAS, Cotter JD. Heat adaptation: guidelines for the optimization of human performance. Int Sport Med J 2006: 7: 1-37.
186. Weiner JS. Observations on the working ability of Bantu mineworkers with reference to acclimatization to hot humid conditions. Br J Ind Med 1950: 7: 17-26.
187. Weller AS, Linnane DM, Jonkman AG, Daanen HA. Quantification of the decay and re-induction of heat acclimation in dry-heat following 12 and 26 days without exposure to heat stress. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007: 102: 57-66.
188. Wenger CB. Human heat acclimatization. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, eds. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press, 1988: 153-197.
189. White A, Salgado R, Schneider S, Loeppky J, Astorino T, Mermier C. Does heat acclimation improve exercise capacity at altitude? A cross-tolerance model. Int J Sports Med 2014: 35: 975-981.
190. Williams CG, Wyndham CH, Morrison JF. Rate of loss of acclimatization in summer and winter. J Appl Physiol 1967: 22: 21-26.
191. Wyndham CH. Effect of acclimatization on circulatory responses to high environmental temperatures. J Appl Physiol 1951: 4: 383-395.
192. Wyndham CH. Effect of acclimatization on the sweat rate-rectal temperature relationship. J Appl Physiol 1967: 22: 27-30.
193. Wyndham CH, Benade AJ, Williams CG, Strydom NB, Goldin A, Heyns AJ. Changes in central circulation and body fluid spaces during acclimatization to heat. J Appl Physiol 1968: 25: 586-593.
194. Wyndham CH, Rogers GG, Senay LC, Mitchell D. Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: cardiovascular adjustments. J Appl Physiol 1976: 40: 779-785.
195. Yamada PM, Amorim FT, Moseley P, Robergs R, Schneider SM. Effect of heat acclimation on heat shock protein 72 and interleukin-10 in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007: 103: 1196-1204.
196. Yamazaki F, Hamasaki K. Heat acclimation increases skin vasodilation and sweating but not cardiac baroreflex responses in heat-stressed humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003: 95: 1567-1574.
197. Young AJ, Sawka MN, Levin L, Cadarette BS, Pandolf KB. Skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise is influenced by heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1985: 59: 1929-1935.