Bacterial, parasitic, and fungal infections of the liver

Liver Disease in Children, Third Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 871-896

  Novak, Donald A ^a   Lauwers, Gregory Y ^b,c   Kradin, Richard L ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^c MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84927961260     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511547409.039     Document Type: Chapter

References (306)

1. Hamilton JR, Sato N. Jaundice associated with severe bacterial infection in young infants. Pediatrics 1963;63:121–32.
2. Bernstein J, Brown AK. Sepsis and jaundice in early infancy. Pediatrics 1962;29:873–82.
3. Seeler RA, Hahn K. Jaundice in urinary tract infection in infancy. Am J Dis Child 1969;1184:553–8.
4. Rooney JC, Hill DJ, Danks DM. Jaundice associated with bacterial infection in the newborn. Am J Dis Child 1971;122:39–41.
5. Shamir R, Maayan-Metzger A, Bujanover Y, et al. Liver enzyme abnormalities in gram-negative bacteremia of premature infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:495–8.
6. Paton A. Sepsis and cholestasis [editorial]. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1984;289:857.
7. Franson TR, Hierholzer WJ Jr, La Brecque DR. Frequency and characteristics of hyperbilirubinemia associated with bacteremia. Rev Infect Dis 1985;7:1–9.
8. Utili R, Abernathy CO, Zimmerman HJ. Cholestatic effects of Escherichia coli endotoxin on the isolated perfused rat liver. Gastroenterology 1976;70:248–53.
9. Blaschke TF, Elin RJ, Berk PD, et al. Effects of induced fever on sulfobromophthalein kinetics in man. Ann Intern Med 1973;78:221–6.
10. Hawker F. Liver dysfunction in critical illness. Anaesth Intensive Care 1991;19:165–81.
11. Lanza JS, Rosato EL. Regulatory factors in the development of fatty infiltration of the liver during gram-negative sepsis. Metabolism 1994;43:691–6.
12. Chusid MJ. Pyogenic hepatic abscess in infancy and childhood. Pediatrics 1978;62:554–9.
13. Pineiro CV, Andres JM. Morbidity and mortality in children with pyogenic liver abscess. Am J Dis Child 1989;14312:1424–7.
14. Hashimoto L, Hermann R, Grundfest BS. Pyogenic hepatic abscess: results of current management. Am Surg 1995;61:407–11.
15. Chou FF, Sheen CS, Chen YS, Chen MC. Single and multiple pyogenic liver abscesses: clinical course, etiology, and results of treatment. World J Surg 1997;21:384–8.
16. Chubachi A, Miura I, Ohshima A, et al. Risk factors for hepatosplenic abscesses in patients with acute leukemia receiving empiric azole treatment. Am J Med Sci 1994;308:309–12.
17. Arya LS, Ghani R, Abdali S, Singh M. Pyogenic liver abscesses in children. Clin Pediatr Phila 1982;21:89–93.
18. Kaplan SL, Feigin RD. Experience and reason – briefly recorded. Pediatrics 1976;58:14–16.
19. Dehner LP, Kissane JM. Pyogenic hepatic abscesses in infancy and childhood. J Pediatr 1969;74:763–73.
20. Chou FF, Sheen CS, Chen YS, Lee TY. The comparison of clinical course and results of treatment between gas-forming and non-gas-forming pyogenic liver abscess. Arch Surg 1995;1304: 401–5.
21. Chou FF, Sheen CS, Lee TY. Rupture of pyogenic liver abscess. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:767–70.
22. Mendez RJ, Schiebler ML, Outwater EK, Kressel HY. Hepatic abscesses: MR imaging findings. Radiology 1994;190:431–6.
23. Diament MJ, Stanley P, Kangarloo H, Donaldson JS. Percutaneous aspiration and catheter drainage of abscesses. J Pediatr 1986;108:204–8.
24. Wong KP. Percutaneous drainage of pyogenic liver abscesses. World J Surg 1990;14:492–7.
25. Ferreira MA, Pereira FE, Musso C, Dettogni RV. Pyogenic liver abscess in children: some observations in the Espirito Santo State, Brazil. Arq Gastroenterol 1997;34:49–54.
26. Brook I, Fraizer EH. Role of anaerobic bacteria in liver abscesses in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:743–7.
27. Lederman ER, Crum NF. Pyogenic liver abscess with a focus on Klebsiella pneumoniae as a primary pathogen: an emerging disease with unique clinical characteristics. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:322–31.
28. Brook I, Frazier EH. Microbiology of liver and spleen abscesses. J Med Microbiol 1998;47:1075–80.
29. Chakrabarti S, Varma S, Kochhar R, et al. Hepatosplenic tuberculosis: a cause of persistent fever during recovery from prolonged neutropenia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998;2:575–9.
30. Akcay MN, Polat KY, Oren D, Ozturk G. Primary tuberculous liver abscess. A case report and review of literature. Int J Clin Pract 2004;58:625–7.
31. Christodoulou N, Papadakis I, Velegrakis M. Actinomycotic liver abscess. Case report and review of the literature. Chir Ital 2004;56:141–6.
32. Zenon GJ, Cadle RM, Hamill RJ. Ampicillin-sulbactam therapy for multiple pyogenic hepatic abscesses [clinical conference]. Clin Pharm 1990;9:939–47.
33. Eng RH, Tecson TF, Corrado ML. Blunt trauma and liver abscess. Am J Gastroenterol 1981;76:252–5.
34. Rayes AA, Teixeira D, Serufo JC, et al. Human toxocariasis and pyogenic liver abscess: a possible association. Am J Gastroenterol 2001;96:563–6.
35. Muorah M, Hinds R, Verma A, et al. Liver abscesses in children: a single center experience in the developed world. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;42:201–6.
36. Noel GJ, Karasic RB. Liver abscess following ingestion of a foreign body. Pediatr Infect Dis 1984;3:342–4.
37. Margalit M, Elinav H, Ilan Y, Shalit M. Liver abscess in inflammatory bowel disease: report of two cases and review of the literature. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;19:1338–42.
38. Brans YW, Ceballos R, Cassady G. Umbilical catheters and hepatic abscesses. Pediatrics 1974;53:264–6.
39. Williams JW, Rittenberry A, Dillard R, Allen RG. Liver abscess in newborn. Complication of umbilical vein catheterization. Am J Dis Child 1973;125:111–13.
40. Hansen PS, Schonheyder HC. Pyogenic hepatic abscess. A 10- year population-based retrospective study. APMIS 1998;106: 396–402.
41. Mc Fadzean AJS, Chang KPS, Wong CC. Solitary pyogenic abscess of the liver treated by closed aspiration and antibiotics. Br J Surg 1953;42:141–52.
42. Giorgio A, Tarantino L, Mariniello N, et al. Pyogenic liver abscesses: 13 years of experience in percutaneous needle aspiration with US guidance. Radiology 1995;1951:122–4.
43. Duncanson FP, Wormser GP. Nonsurgical therapy of pyogenic liver abscess. Drug Ther 1983;17–28.
44. Pitt HA. Surgical management of hepatic abscesses. World J Surg 1990;14:498–504.
45. Bamberger DM. Outcomeof medical treatment of bacterial abscesses without therapeutic drainage: review of cases reported in the literature [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:592–603.
46. Rogers CA, Isenberg JN, Leonard AS, Sharp HL. Ascending cholangitis diagnosed by percutaneous hepatic aspiration. J Pediatr 1976;88:83–6.
47. Kobayashi A, Utsunomiya T, Obe Y, Shimizu K. Ascending cholangitis after successful surgical repair of biliary atresia. Arch Dis Child 1973;48:697–703.
48. Ecoffey C, Rothman E, Bernard O, et al. Bacterial cholangitis after surgery for biliary atresia. J Pediatr 1987;111:824–9.
49. Gottrand F, Bernard O, Hadchouel M, et al. Late cholangitis after successful surgical repair of biliary atresia. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:213–15.
50. Wyllie R, Fitzgerald JF. Bacterial cholangitis in a 10-week-old infant with fever of undetermined origin. Pediatrics 1980;65: 164–7.
51. Scott AJ. Bacteria and disease of the biliary tract. Gut 1971;12: 487–92.
52. Lipsett PA, Pitt HA. Acute cholangitis. Surg Clin North Am 1990;70:1297–312.
53. Carpenter HA. Bacterial and parasitic cholangitis. Mayo Clin Proc 1998;73:473–8.
54. Thompson JE Jr, Tompkins RK, Longmire WP Jr. Factors in management of acute cholangitis. Ann Surg 1982;195:137–45.
55. Bornman PC, van Beljon JI, Krige JE. Management of cholangitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 2003;10:406–14.
56. Kawamoto S, Soyer PA, Fishman EK, Bluemke DA. Nonneoplastic liver disease: evaluation with CT and MR imaging. Radiographics 1998;18:827–48.
57. Desmet DM. Cholestasis; extrahepatic obstruction and secondary biliary cirrhosis. In: Macsween RNM, Anthony PP, Scheuer PJ, editors. Pathology of the liver. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1979:272–305.
58. Lipsett PA, Pitt HA. Acute cholangitis. Front Biosci 2003;8: s1229–39.
59. Dooley JS, Hamilton MJ, Brumfitt W, Sherlock S. Antibiotics in the treatment of biliary infection. Gut 1984;25:988–98.
60. Gerecht WB, Henry NK, Hoffman WW, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of mezlocillin therapy alone with combined ampicillin and gentamicin therapy for patients with cholangitis. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:1279–84.
61. Lee DW, Chung SC. Biliary infection. Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol 1997;11:707–24.
62. Cheng CL, Fogel EL, Sherman S, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in children: a large series report. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2005; 41:445–53.
63. Wear DJ, Margileth AM, Hadfield TL, et al. Cat scratch disease: a bacterial infection. Science 1983;221:1403–5.
64. Dunn MW, Berkowitz FE, Miller JJ, Snitzer JA. Hepatosplenic cat-scratch disease and abdominal pain. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997;16:269–72.
65. Carithers HA. Cat-scratch disease. An overview based on a study of 1, 200 patients. Am J Dis Child 1985;139:1124–33.
66. Lambert H, Hausser E. [Anicteric hepatitis. New possible complication of cat-scratch disease]. Rev Med Suisse Romande 1965; 85:689–93.
67. Greenbaum B, Nelson P, Marchildon M, Donaldson M. Hemolytic anemia and hepatosplenomegaly associated with catscratch fever. J Pediatr 1986;108:428–30.
68. Rocco VK, Roman RJ, Eigenbrodt EH. Cat scratch disease. Report of a case with hepatic lesions and a brief review of the literature. Gastroenterology 1985;89:1400–6.
69. Rizkallah MF, Meyer L, Ayoub EM. Hepatic and splenic abscesses in cat-scratch disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988;7:191–5.
70. Lenoir AA, Storch GA, De Schryver KK, et al. Granulomatous hepatitis associated with cat scratch disease. Lancet 1988;1: 1132–6.
71. Malatack JJ, Altman HA, Nard JA, et al. Cat-scratch disease without adenopathy. J Pediatr 1989;114:101–4.
72. Golden SE. Hepatosplenic cat-scratch disease associated with elevated anti-Rochalimaea antibody titers. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:868–71.
73. Lamps LW, Gray GF, Scott MA. The histologic spectrum of hepatic cat scratch disease. A series of six cases with confirmed Bartonella henselae infection. Am J Surg Pathol 1996;20: 1253–9.
74. American Academy of Pediatrics. Cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae). In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:232–4.
75. Bryant K, Marshall GS. Hepatosplenic cat scratch disease treated with corticosteroids. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:345–6.
76. Fitz-Hugh T. Acute gonococcic peritonitis of the right upper quadrant in women. JAMA 1934;102:2094–6.
77. Curtis AH. A cause of adhesions in the right upper quadrant. JAMA 1930;94:1221–2.
78. Bolton JP, Darougar S. Perihepatitis. Br Med Bull 1983;39:159–62.
79. Tsubuku M, Hayashi S, Terahara A, et al. Fitz-Hugh–Curtis syndrome: linear contrast enhancement of the surface of the liver on CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2002;26:456–8.
80. Wolner HP, Westrom L, Mardh PA. Perihepatitis and chlamydial salpingitis. Lancet 1980;1:901–3.
81. Joseph AT. Perihepatitis in women with salpingitis – an underdiagnosed clinical entity [letter]? Genitourin Med 1995;71: 331.
82. Holmes KK, Counts GW, Beaty HN. Disseminated gonococcal infection. Ann Intern Med 1971;74:979–93.
83. Cleary TG. Salmonella. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan SL, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2004:1473–87.
84. Ramachandran S, Godfrey JJ, Perera MV. Typhoid hepatitis. JAMA 1974;230:236–40.
85. Gonzalez-Quintela A, Campos J, Alende R, et al. Abnormalities in liver enzyme levels during Salmonella enteritidis enterocolitis. Rev Esp Enferm Dig 2004;96:559–62.
86. Mert A, Tabak F, Ozaras R,. Typhoid fever as a rare cause of hepatic, splenic, and bone marrow granulomas. Intern Med 2004;43:436–9.
87. Albrecht H. Bacterial and miscellaneous infections of the liver. In: Zakim D, Boyer TD, editors. Hepatology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2003:1109–24.
88. Young EJ. Brucellosis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious disease. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2004:1582–8.
89. Lulu AR, Araj GF, Khateeb MI, et al. Human brucellosis in Kuwait: a prospective study of 400 cases. Q J Med 1988;66:39–54.
90. Cervantes F, Bruguera M, Carbonell J, et al. Liver disease in brucellosis. A clinical and pathological study of 40 cases. Postgrad Med J 1982;58:346–50.
91. Sisteron O, Souci J, Chevallier P, et al. Hepatic abscess caused by Brucella US, CT and MRI findings: case report and review of the literature. Clin Imaging 2002;26:414–17.
92. American Academy of Pediatrics. Brucellosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:222–4.
93. Colmenero JD, Queipo-Ortuno MI, Maria RJ, et al. Chronic hepatosplenic abscesses in Brucellosis. Clinico-therapeutic features and molecular diagnostic approach. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2002;42:159–67.
94. Feigin RD, Lau CC. Tularemia. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004:1628–36.
95. Evans ME, Gregory DW, Schaffner W, Mc Gee ZA. Tularemia: a 30-year experience with 88 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1985; 64:251–69.
96. Ortego TJ, Hutchins LF, Rice J, Davis GR. Tularemic hepatitis presenting as obstructive jaundice. Gastroenterology 1986;91: 461–3.
97. American Academy of Pediatrics. Tularemia. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:666–7.
98. Vadillo M, Corbella X, Pac V, et al. Multiple liver abscesses due to Yersinia enterocolitica discloses primary hemochromatosis: three cases reports and review [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 1994;18:938–41.
99. Crosbie J, Varma J, Mansfield J. Yersinia enterocolitica infection in a patient with hemachromatosis masquerading as proximal colon cancer with liver metastases: report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum 2005;48:390–2.
100. Centers for Disease Control. Toxic shock syndrome. MMWR 1980;29:229–39.
101. Gourley GR, Chesney PJ, Davis JP, Odell GB. Acute cholestasis in patients with toxic-shock syndrome. Gastroenterology 1981;81:928–31.
102. Ishak KG, Rogers WA. Cryptogenic acute cholangitis – association with toxic shock syndrome. Am J Clin Pathol 1981;76:619–26.
103. Cunha BA. Systemic infections affecting the liver. Some cause jaundice, some do not. Postgrad Med 1988;84:148–3, 166.
104. Fishbein WN. Jaundice as an early manifestation of scarlet fever. Report of three cases in adults and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1962;57:60–72.
105. Biesel-Desthieux MN, Tissieres P, Belli DC, et al. Fulminant liver failure in a child with invasive group A streptococcal infection. Eur J Pediatr 2003;162:245–7.
106. American Academy of Pediatrics. Toxic shock syndrome. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:624–30.
107. Zimmerman HJ, Thomas LJ. The liver in pneumococcal pneumonia. Observations in 94 cases on liver function and jaundice in pneumonia. J Lab Clin Med 1950;35:556–67.
108. Tugwell P, Williams AO. Jaundice associated with lobar pneumonia. A clinical, laboratory and histological study. Q J Med 1977;46:97–118.
109. Edwards MS. Listeriosis. In:Mc Millan JA, De Angelis CD, Feigin RD, Warshaw JB, eds. Oski’s pediatrics. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins, 1999:978–80.
110. Ray CG, Wedgewood R. Neonatal listeriosis – six case reports and a review of the literature. Pediatrics 1964;34:378.
111. Vargas V, Aleman C, de TI, et al. Listeria monocytogenesassociated acute hepatitis in a liver transplant recipient. Liver 1998;18:213–15.
112. Cousens LP, Wing EJ. Innate defenses in the liver during Listeria infection. Immunol Rev 2000;174:150–9.
113. American Academy of Pediatrics. Listeria monocytogenes infections listeriosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:405–7.
114. Hof H, Nichterlein T, Kretschmar M. Management of listeriosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:345–57.
115. Starke JR, Smith KC. Tuberculosis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders, 2004:1337–79.
116. Korn RJ, Kellow WF, Heller P, et al. Hepatic involvement in extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Med 1959;27:60–71.
117. Sharma S. Granulomatous diseases of the liver. In: Zakim D, Boyer TD, editors. Hepatology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2003:1317–30.
118. Alvarez SZ, Carpio R. Hepatobiliary tuberculosis. Dig Dis Sci 1983;28:193–200.
119. Maglinte DD, Alvarez SZ, Ng AC, Lapena JL. Patterns of calcifications and cholangiographic findings in hepatobiliary tuberculosis. Gastrointest Radiol 1988;13:331–5.
120. Levine C. Primary macronodular hepatic tuberculosis: US and CT appearances. Gastrointest Radiol 1990;15:307–9.
121. Diaz ML, Herrera T, Lopez VY, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in tissue and assessment of its utility in the diagnosis of hepatic granulomas. J Lab Clin Med 1996;127:359–63.
122. American Academy of Pediatrics. Tuberculosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:642–60.
123. Reed DH, Nash AF, Valabhji P. Radiological diagnosis and management of a solitary tuberculous hepatic abscess. Br J Radiol 1990;63:902–4.
124. Flegg PJ, Laing RB, Lee C, et al. Disseminated disease due to Mycobacterium avium complex in AIDS. QJM 1995;88:617–26.
125. Wilkins MJ, Lindley R, Dourakis SP, Goldin RD. Surgical pathology of the liver in HIVinfection. Histopathology 1991;18: 459–64.
126. Wright J. Current strategies for the prevention and treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with AIDS. Pharmacotherapy 1998;18:738–47.
127. Ong EL. Prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex in AIDS. J Infect 1999;38:6–8.
128. Jonas RB, Brasitus TA, Chowdhury L. Actinomycotic liver abscess. Case report and literature review. Dig Dis Sci 1987;32: 1435–7.
129. Meade RH. Primary hepatic actinomycosis. Gastroenterology 1980;78:355–9.
130. Sharma M, Briski LE, Khatib R. Hepatic actinomycosis: an overview of salient features and outcome of therapy. Scand J Infect Dis 2002;34:386–91.
131. Kasano Y, Tanimura H, Yamaue H, et al. Hepatic actinomycosis infiltrating the diaphragm and right lung. Am J Gastroenterol 1996;91:2418–20.
132. American Academy of Pediatrics. Actinomycosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:189–90.
133. Felekouras E, Menenakos C, Griniatsos J, et al. Liver resection in cases of isolated hepatic actinomycosis: case report and review of the literature. Scand J Infect Dis 2004;36:535–8.
134. Dumler JS, Bakken JS. Human ehrlichioses: newly recognized infections transmitted by ticks. Annu Rev Med 1998;49:201–13.
135. Fishbein DB, Dawson JE, Robinson LE. Human ehrlichiosis in the United States, 1985 to 1990. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:736–43.
136. Moskovitz M, Fadden R, Min T. Humanehrlichiosis: a rickettsial disease associatedwith severe cholestasis andmultisystemic disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 1991;13:86–90.
137. Sehdev AE, Dumler JS. Hepatic pathology in human monocytic ehrlichiosis. Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection. Am J Clin Pathol 2003;119:859–65.
138. Dumler JS, Sutker WL, Walker DH. Persistent infection with Ehrlichia chaffeensis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:903–5.
139. Dumler JS, Bakken JS. Ehrlichial diseases of humans: emerging tick-borne infections. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:1102–10.
140. Yu X, Brouqui P, Dumler JS, Raoult D. Detection of Ehrlichia chaffeensis in human tissue by using a species-specific monoclonal antibody. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:3284–8.
141. Wood A, Wilfert C, Kelsey D, Gutman L. Childhood syphilis in North Carolina. NC Med J 1980;41:443–9.
142. Tan KL. The re-emergence of early congenital syphilis. Acta Paediatr Scand 1973;62:601–7.
143. Oppenheimer EH, Hardy JB. Congenital syphilis in thenewborn infant: clinical and pathological observations in recent cases. Johns Hopkins Med J 1971;129:63–82.
144. Patrick CC, McCullers JA. Syphilis. In:Mc Millan JA, De Angelis CD, Feigin RD, Warshaw JB, eds. Oski’s pediatrics. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999:1021–5.
145. Listernick R. Liver failure in a 2-day-old infant. Pediatr Ann 2004;33:10–14.
146. Wright DJ, Berry CL. Letter: liver involvement in congenital syphilis. Br J Vener Dis 1974;50:241.
147. Brooks SE, Audretsch JJ. Hepatic ultrastructure in congenital syphilis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1978;102:502–5.
148. Long WA, Ulshen MH, Lawson EE. Clinical manifestations of congenital syphilitic hepatitis: implications for pathogenesis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1984;3:551–5.
149. Ozaki T, Takemoto K, Hosono H, et al. Secondary syphilitic hepatitis in a fourteen-year-old male youth. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:439–41.
150. Ridruejo E, Mordoh A, Herrera F, et al. Severe cholestatic hepatitis as the first symptom of secondary syphilis. Dig Dis Sci 2004;49:1401–4.
151. Schlossberg D. Syphilitic hepatitis: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Gastroenterol 1987;82:552–3.
152. Comer GM, Mukherjee S, Sachdev RK, Clain DJ. Cardiolipinfluorescent (M1) antimitochondrial antibody and cholestatic hepatitis in secondary syphilis. Dig Dis Sci 1989;34:1298–302.
153. Steere AC, Grodzicki RL, Kornblatt AN, et al. The spirochetal etiology of Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 1983;308:733–40.
154. Benach JL, Bosler EM, Hanrahan JP, et al. Spirochetes isolated from the blood of two patients with Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 1983;308:740–2.
155. Steere AC, Bartenhagen NH, Craft JE, et al. The early clinical manifestations of Lyme disease. Ann Intern Med 1983;99:76–82.
156. Nadelman RB, Nowakowski J, Forseter G, et al. The clinical spectrum of early Lyme borreliosis in patients with cultureconfirmed erythema migrans. Am J Med 1996;100:502–8.
157. Goellner MH, Agger WA, Burgess JH, Duray PH. Hepatitis due to recurrent Lyme disease. Ann Intern Med 1988;108:707–8.
158. Schoen RT. Relapsing or reinfectious Lyme hepatitis. Hepatology 1989;9:335–6.
159. Liveris D, Varde S, Iyer R, et al. Genetic diversity of Borrelia burgdorferi in Lyme disease patients as determined by culture versus direct PCR with clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1999;373:565–9.
160. American Academy of Pediatrics. Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi infection). In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:407–11.
161. Brown V, Larouze B, Desve G, et al. Clinical presentation of louse-borne relapsing fever among Ethiopian refugees in northern Somalia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1988;82:499–502.
162. Feigin RD. Leptospirosis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders, 2004:1708–22.
163. Wong ML, Kaplan S, Dunkle LM, et al. Leptospirosis: a childhood disease. J Pediatr 1977;90:532–7.
164. Jevon TR, Knudson MP, Smith PA, et al. A point-source epidemic of leptospirosis. Description of cases, cause, and prevention. Postgrad Med 1986;80:121–9.
165. Cruz ML, Andrade J, Pereira MM. Leptospirose em criancas no Rio de Janeiro [Leptospirosis in children in Rio do Janeiro]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 1994;27:5–9.
166. Edington GM. Other viral and infectious diseases. In: Macsween RNM, Anthony PP, Scheuer PJ, eds. Pathology of the liver. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1979:192–220.
167. American Academy of Pediatrics. Leptospirosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:403–5.
168. Takafuji ET, Kirkpatrick JW, Miller RN, et al. An efficacy trial of doxycycline chemoprophylaxis against leptospirosis. N Engl J Med 1984;310:497–500.
169. Feigin RD, Boom M. Rickettsial diseases. In: Mc Millan JA, De Angelis CD, Feigin RD, Warshaw JB, eds. Oski’s pediatrics. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999:898–907.
170. Adams JS, Walker DH. The liver in Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Am J Clin Pathol 1981;75:156–61.
171. American Academy of Pediatrics. Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:532–4.
172. Westlake P, Price LM, Russell M, Kelly JK. The pathology of Q fever hepatitis. A case diagnosed by liver biopsy. J Clin Gastroenterol 1987;9:357–63.
173. Berkovitch M, Aladjem M, Beer S, Cohar K. A fatal case of Q fever hepatitis in a child. Helv Paediatr Acta 1985;40:87–91.
174. Domingo P, Orobitg J, Colomina J, et al. Liver involvement in acute Q fever [letter]. Chest 1988;94:895–6.
175. Atienza P, Ramond MJ, Degott C, et al. Chronic Q fever hepatitis complicated by extensive fibrosis. Gastroenterology 1988; 95:478–81.
176. Baquero-Artigao F, del Castillo F, Tellez A. Acute Q fever pericarditis followed by chronic hepatitis in a two-year-old girl. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:705–7.
177. American Academy of Pediatrics. Q Fever. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:512–14.
178. Mc Gowan K. How to find and treat amebiasis. Drug Ther 1984; 14:159–74.
179. Harrison HR, Crowe CP, Fulginiti VA. Amebic liver abscess in children: clinical and epidemiologic features. Pediatrics 1979; 64:923–8.
180. Hotez PJ, Strickland AD. Amebiasis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004:2660–9.
181. Rimsza ME, Berg RA. Cutaneous amebiasis. Pediatrics 1983; 71:595–8.
182. Sherlock S. Diseases of the liver and biliary system. 7th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1985.
183. Crane PS, Lee YT, Seel DJ. Experience in the treatment of two hundred patients with amebic abscess of the liver in Korea. Am J Surg 1972;123:332–7.
184. Chaves FJ, Cruz I, Gomes C, et al. Hepatic amebiasis-analysis of 56 cases. II. Laboratory and chest x-ray findings. Am J Gastroenterol 1977;68:273–7.
185. Barrett CE. Amebiasis, today, in the United States. Calif Med 1971;114:1–6.
186. American Academy of Pediatrics. Drugs for parasitic infections. In: Pickering L, editor. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:744–70.
187. Giorgio A, Amoroso P, Francica G, et al. Echo-guided percutaneous puncture: a safe and valuable therapeutic tool for amebic liver abscess. Gastrointest Radiol 1988;13:336–40.
188. Adams EB, Mac Leod IN. Invasive amebiasis. II. Amebic liver abscess and its complications. Medicine (Baltimore) 1977;56: 325–34.
189. Turner JA. Cestodes. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders, 2004:2797–816.
190. Farmer PM, Chatterley S, Spier N. Echinococcal cyst of the liver: diagnosis and surgical management. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1990; 20:385–91.
191. Gangopadhyay AN, Sahoo SP, Sharma SP, et al. Hydatid disease in children may have an atypical presentation. Pediatr Surg Int 2000;16:89–90.
192. Al Karawi MA, El Sheikh Mohamed AR, Yasawy MI. Advances in diagnosis and management of hydatid disease. Hepatogastroenterology 1990;37:327–31.
193. Agildere AM, Aytekin C, Coskun M, et al. MRIofhydatid disease of the liver: a variety of sequences. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1998;22:718–24.
194. Balci NC, Sirvanci M. MR imaging of infective liver lesions. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2002;10:121–35, vii.
195. Etlik O, Bay A, Arslan H, et al. Contrast-enhanced CT and MRI findings of atypical hepatic Echinococcus alveolaris infestation. Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:546–9.
196. Spiliadis C, Georgopoulos S, Dailianas A, et al. The use of ERCP in the study of patients with hepatic echinococcosis before and after surgical intervention. Gastrointest Endosc 1996;43:575–9.
197. Bret PM, Fond A, Bretagnolle M, et al. Percutaneous aspiration and drainage of hydatid cysts in the liver. Radiology 1988; 168:617–20.
198. Stefaniak J. Fine needle aspiration biopsy in the differential diagnosis of the liver cystic echinococcosis. Acta Trop 1997;67:107–11.
199. Bickel A, Daud G, Urbach D, et al. Laparoscopic approach to hydatid liver cysts. Is it logical?Physical, experimental, and practical aspects. Surg Endosc 1998;12:1073–7.
200. Golematis BC, Peveretos PJ. Hepatic hydatid disease: current surgical treatment. Mt Sinai J Med 1995;62:71–6.
201. Schipper HG, Kager PA. Diagnosis and treatment of hepatic echinococcosis: an overview. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 2004;50–5.
202. Agaoglu N, Turkyilmaz S, Arslan MK. Surgical treatment of hydatid cysts of the liver. Br J Surg 2003;90:1536–41.
203. Ertem M, Karahasanoglu T, Yavuz N, Erguney S. Laparoscopically treated liver hydatid cysts. Arch Surg 2002;137:1170–3.
204. Bosanac ZB, Lisanin L. Percutaneous drainage of hydatid cyst in the liver as a primary treatment: review of 52 consecutive cases with long-term follow-up. Clin Radiol 2000;55:839–48.
205. Ormeci N, Soykan I, Bektas A, et al. A new percutaneous approach for the treatment of hydatid cysts of the liver. Am J Gastroenterol 2001;96:2225–30.
206. Sciume C, Geraci G, Pisello F, et al. Treatment of complications of hepatic hydatid disease by ERCP: our experience. Ann Ital Chir 2004;75:531–5.
207. Louw JH. Abdominal complications of ascariasis. Surg Rounds 1981;4:54–65.
208. Sakakibara A, Baba K, Niwa S, et al. Visceral larva migrans due to Ascaris suum which presented with eosinophilic pneumonia and multiple intra-hepatic lesions with severe eosinophil infiltration — outbreak in a Japanese area other than Kyushu. Intern Med 2002;41:574–9.
209. Khuroo MS. Hepatobiliary and pancreatic ascariasis. Indian J Gastroenterol 2001;20 Suppl 1:C28–32.
210. Pinilla AE, Lopez MC, Ricaurte O, et al. Liver abscess caused by Ascaris lumbricoides: case report. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2001;43:343–6.
211. El Sheikh Mohamed AR, Al Karawi MA, Yasawy MI. Modern techniques in the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal and biliary tree parasites. Hepatogastroenterology 1991;38: 180–8.
212. Radin DR, Vachon LA. CT findings in biliary and pancreatic ascariasis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1986;10:508–9.
213. Bhushan B, Watal G, Mahajan R, Khuroo MS. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreaticographic features of pancreaticobiliary ascariasis. Gastrointest Radiol 1988;13:327–30.
214. Reddy DN, Sriram PV, Rao GV. Endoscopic diagnosis and management of tropical parasitic infestations. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2003;13:765–73, x–xi.
215. Beckingham IJ, Cullis SN, Krige JE, et al. Management of hepatobiliary and pancreatic Ascaris infestation in adults after failed medical treatment. Br J Surg 1998;85:907–10.
216. Pereira-Lima JC, Jakobs R, da Silva CP, et al. Endoscopic removal of Ascaris lumbricoides from the biliary tract as emergency treatment for acute suppurative cholangitis. Z Gastroenterol 2001;39:793–6.
217. Ozcan N, Erdogan N, Kucuk C, Ok E. Biliary ascariasis: percutaneous transhepatic management. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003; 14:391–3.
218. Zinkham WH. Visceral larva migrans. A review and reassessment indicating two forms of clinical expression: visceral and ocular. Am J Dis Child 1978;132:627–33.
219. Azuma K, Yashiro N, Kinoshita T, et al. Hepatic involvement of visceral larva migrans due to Toxocara canis: a case report – CT and MR findings. Radiat Med 2002;20:89–92.
220. Choe G, Lee HS, Seo JK, et al. Hepatic capillariasis: first case report in the Republic of Korea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993;48: 610–25.
221. Terrier P, Hack I, Hatz C, et al. Hepatic capillariasis in a 2-yearold boy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1999;28:338–40.
222. Doehring E. Schistosomiasis in childhood. Eur J Pediatr 1988; 147:2–9.
223. Mc Kerrow JH, Sun E. Hepatic schistosomiasis. Prog Liver Dis 1994;12:121–35.
224. Bica I, Hamer DH, Stadecker MJ. Hepatic schistosomiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2000;14:583–604, viii.
225. De CK. Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis: a clinical review. Gut 1986;27:734–45.
226. Symmers W. Note on a new form of liver cirrhosis due to the presence of ova of Bilharzia haematobium. J Pathol Bacteriol 1903;9:237–9.
227. Diaz Granados CA, Duffus WA, Albrecht H. Parasitic diseases of the liver. In: Zakim D, Boyer TD, eds. Hepatology. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003:1073–108.
228. Lambertucci JR, Cota GF, Pinto-Silva RA, et al. Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis in field-based studies: a combined clinical and sonographic definition. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2001;96 Suppl:147–50.
229. Palmer PE. Schistosomiasis. Semin Roentgenol 1998;33:6–25.
230. Willemsen UF, Pfluger T, Zoller WG, et al. MRIof hepatic schistosomiasis mansoni. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19:811–13.
231. Doehring SE, Abdel RI, Kardorff R, et al. Ultrasonographical investigation of periportal fibrosis in children with Schistosomamansoni infection: reversibilityofmorbidity twenty-three months after treatment with praziquantel. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992;46:409–15.
232. Petroianu A, De Oliveira AE, Alberti LR. Hypersplenism in schistosomatic portal hypertension. Arch Med Res 2005;36: 496–501.
233. Lin AC, Chapman SW, Turner HR, Wofford JD. Clonorchiasis: an update. South Med J 1987;80:919–22.
234. Liu LX, Harinasuta KT. Liver andintestinalflukes. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1996;25:627–36.
235. Sun T. Pathology and immunology of Clonorchis sinensis infection of the liver. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1984;14:208–15.
236. Mairiang E, Mairiang P. Clinical manifestation of opisthorchiasis and treatment. Acta Trop 2003;88:221–7.
237. Fan ST, Choi TK, Wong J. Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis: current management [see comments]. World J Surg 1991;15:248–53.
238. Jones EA, Kay JM, Milligan HP, Owens D. Massive infection with Fasciola hepatica in man. Am J Med 1977;63:836–42.
239. Mac Lean JD, Graeme-Cook FM. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 12-2002. A 50-year-old man with eosinophilia and fluctuating hepatic lesions. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1232–9.
240. Cosme A, Ojeda E, Poch M, et al. Sonographic findings of hepatic lesions in human fascioliasis. J Clin Ultrasound 2003;31: 358–63.
241. Hillyer GV, Soler-de GM, Rodriguez PJ, et al. Use of the Falcon assay screening test – enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (FAST-ELISA) and the enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) to determine the prevalence of human fascioliasis in the Bolivian Altiplano. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992;46:603–9.
242. Sezgin O, Altintas E, Disibeyaz S, et al. Hepatobiliary fascioliasis: clinical and radiologic features and endoscopic management. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004;38:285–91.
243. Abdul HS, Contreras R, Tombazzi C, et al. Hepatic fascioliasis: case report and review. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1996; 38:69–73.
244. Haghighi P, Rezai HR. Leishmaniasis: a review of selected topics. Pathol Annu 1977;12 Pt 2:63–89.
245. Wittner M, Tanowitz HB. Leishmaniasis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders, 2004:2730–9.
246. Moreno A, Marazuela M, Yebra M, et al. Hepatic fibrin-ring granulomas in visceral leishmaniasis. Gastroenterology 1988; 95:1123–6.
247. Moragas A, Serrano A, Toran N. Acute formof visceral leishmaniasis in a 3-month-old infant. Pediatr Pathol 1986;6:111–17.
248. Katakura K, Kawazu S, Naya T, et al. Diagnosis of kala-azar by nested PCR based on amplification of the Leishmania miniexon gene. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:2173–7.
249. Noyes HA, Reyburn H, Bailey JW, Smith D. A nested-PCRbased schizodeme method for identifying Leishmania kinetoplast minicircle classes directly from clinical samples and its application to the study of the epidemiology of Leishmania tropica in Pakistan. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:2877–81.
250. Bukte Y, Nazaroglu H, Mete A, Yilmaz F. Visceral leishmaniasis with multiple nodular lesions of the liver and spleen: CT and sonographic findings. Abdom Imaging 2004;29:82–4.
251. Barnett ED. Malaria. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004:2714–40.
252. Ibhanesebhor SE. Clinical characteristics of neonatal malaria. J Trop Pediatr 1995;41:330–3.
253. Devarbhavi H, Alvares JF, Kumar KS. Severe falciparum malaria simulating fulminant hepatic failure. Mayo Clin Proc 2005;80:355–8.
254. Kochar DK, Singh P, Agarwal P, et al. Malarial hepatitis. J Assoc Physicians India 2003;51:1069–72.
255. Warrell DA. Pathophysiology of severe falciparum malaria in man. Parasitology 1987;94 Suppl:S53–76.
256. Cook GC. Malaria in the liver. Postgrad Med J 1994;70:780–4.
257. Sowunmi A. Hepatomegaly in acute falciparum malaria in children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996;90:540–2.
258. Thaler M, Pastakia B, Shawker TH, et al. Hepatic candidiasis in cancer patients: the evolving picture of the syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1988;108:88–100.
259. Anttila VJ, Lamminen AE, Bondestam S, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging is superior to computed tomography and ultrasonography in imaging infectious liver foci in acute leukaemia. Eur J Haematol 1996;56:82–7.
260. Semelka RC, Kelekis NL, Sallah S, et al. Hepatosplenic fungal disease: diagnostic accuracy and spectrum of appearances on MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;169:1311–16.
261. Pizzo PA, Rubin M, Freifeld A, Walsh TJ. The child with cancer and infection. II. Nonbacterial infections. J Pediatr 1991;119: 845–57.
262. Einsele H, Hebart H, Roller G, et al. Detection and identification of fungal pathogens in blood by using molecular probes. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:1353–60.
263. American Academy of Pediatrics. Candidiasis (Moniliasis, Thrush). In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:229–32.
264. Walsh TJ, Whitcomb P, Piscitelli S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B lipid complex in children with hepatosplenic candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:1944–8.
265. Beovic B, Lejko ZT, Pretnar J. Sequential treatment of deep fungal infections with amphotericin B deoxycholate and amphotericin B colloidal dispersion. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;16:507–11.
266. Blot S, Vandewoude K. Management of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients. Drugs 2004;64:2159–75.
267. Kauffman CA, Bradley SF, Ross SC, Weber DR. Hepatosplenic candidiasis: successful treatment with fluconazole. Am J Med 1991;91:137–41.
268. Anaissie E, Bodey GP, Kantarjian H, et al. Fluconazole therapy for chronic disseminated candidiasis in patients with leukemia and prior amphotericin B therapy. Am J Med 1991;91:142–50.
269. Presterl E, Graninger W. Efficacy and safety of fluconazole in the treatment of systemic fungal infections in pediatric patients. Multicentre Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994; 13:347–51.
270. Driessen M, Ellis JB, Muwazi F, De VF. The treatmentof systemic candidiasis in neonateswith oral fluconazole. Ann Trop Paediatr 1997;17:263–71.
271. Kontoyiannis DP, Luna MA, Samuels BI, Bodey GP. Hepatosplenic candidiasis. Amanifestation of chronic disseminated candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2000;14:721–39.
272. Korinek JK, Guarda LA, Bolivar R, Stroehlein JR. Trichosporon hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1983;85:732–4.
273. Meyer MH, Letscher-Bru V, Waller J, et al. Chronic disseminated Trichosporon asahii infection in a leukemic child. Clin Infect Dis 2002;352:e22–5.
274. Duong TA. Infection due to Penicillium marneffei, an emerging pathogen: review of 155 reported cases [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:125–30.
275. Kantipong P, Panich V, Pongsurachet V, Watt G. Hepatic penicilliosis in patients without skin lesions. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26:1215–17.
276. Viscomi SG, Mortele KJ, Cantisani V, et al. Fatal, complete splenic infarction and hepatic infection due to disseminated Trichosporon beigelii infection: CT findings. Abdom Imaging 2004; 29:228–30.
277. American Academy of Pediatrics. Fungal Diseases. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:280–2.
278. Drutz DJ, Catanzaro A. Coccidioidomycosis. Part I. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;117:559–85.
279. Drutz DJ, Catanzaro A. Coccidioidomycosis. Part II. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;117:727–71.
280. Shehab ZM. Coccidiomycosis. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Demmler GJ, Kaplan S, eds. Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004:2580–92.
281. Dodd LG, Nelson SD. Disseminated coccidioidomycosis detected by percutaneous liver biopsy in a liver transplant recipient. Am J Clin Pathol 1990;93:141–4.
282. Howard PF, Smith JW. Diagnosis of disseminated coccidioidomycosis by liver biopsy. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:1335–8.
283. Craig JR, Hillberg RH, Balchum OJ. Disseminated coccidioidomycosis. Diagnosis by needle biopsy of liver. West J Med 1975;122:171–4.
284. American Academy of Pediatrics. Coccidioidomycosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:250–3.
285. Das BC, Haynes I, Weaver RM. Primary hepatic cryptococcosis. BMJ 1983;287:464.
286. Kothari AA, Kothari KA. Hepatobiliary dysfunction as initial manifestation of disseminated cryptococcosis. Indian J Gastroenterol 2004;23:145–6.
287. Lefton HB, Farmer RG, Buchwald R, Haselby R. Cryptococcal hepatitis mimicking primary sclerosing cholangitis. A case report. Gastroenterology 1974;67:511–15.
288. Bucuvalas JC, Bove KE, Kaufman RA, et al. Cholangitis associated with Cryptococcus neoformans. Gastroenterology 1985;88: 1055–9.
289. Lee S, Kim HJ. Cryptococcosis with cutaneous manifestations treatedwith 5-fluorocytosine. Dermatologica 1980;161:327–33.
290. American Academy of Pediatrics. Cryptococcus neoformans infections (Cryptococcosis). In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003:254–5.
291. Goodwin RAJ, Shapiro JL, Thurman GH, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis: clinical and pathologic correlations. Medicine (Baltimore) 1980;59:1–33.
292. Martin RC, Edwards MJ, Mc Masters KM. Histoplasmosis as an isolated liver lesion: review and surgical therapy. Am Surg 2001; 67:430–1.
293. Troillet N, Llor J, Kuchler H, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis in an adopted infant from El Salvador. Eur J Pediatr 1996; 155:474–6.
294. Tobon AM, Franco L, Espinal D, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis in children: the role of itraconazole therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996;15:1002–8.
295. American Academy of Pediatrics. Histoplasmosis. In: Pickering L, editor. Red Book: 2003Report of the Committeeon Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:353–6.
296. Mangurten HH, Fernandez B. Neonatal aspergillosis accompanying fulminant necrotising enterocolitis. Arch Dis Child 1979; 54:559–62.
297. Robinson SP, Remedios D, Davidson RN. Do amoebic liver abscesses start as large lesions? Case report of an evolving amoebic liver abscess. J Infect 1998;36:338–40.
298. Boon AP, O’Brien D, Adams DH. 10 year review of invasive aspergillosis detected at necropsy [see comments]. J Clin Pathol 1991;44:452–4.
299. Vairani G, Rebeschini R, Barbazza R. Hepatic and subcutaneous abscesses due to aspergillosis. Initial diagnosis of a case by intraoperative fine needle aspiration cytology. Acta Cytol 1990; 34:891–4.
300. Hospenthal DR, Byrd JC, Weiss RB. Successful treatment of invasive aspergillosis complicating prolonged treatment-related neutropenia in acutemyelogenous leukemiawith amphotericin B lipid complex. Med Pediatr Oncol 1995;25:119–22.
301. Lebeau B, Pelloux H, Pinel C, et al. Itraconazole in the treatment of aspergillosis: a study of 16 cases. Mycoses 1994;37:171–9.
302. Ullmann AJ. Review of the safety, tolerability, and drug interactions of the new antifungal agents caspofungin and voriconazole. Curr Med Res Opin 2003;19:263–71.
303. American Academy of Pediatrics. Aspergillosis. In: Pickering L, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL:American Academyof Pediatrics, 2003:208–10.
304. Camacho LL, Borges DR. Early liver dysfunction in schistosomiasis. J Hepatol 1998;29:233–240.
305. Teixeira F, Gayotto LC, De BT. Morphological patterns of the liver in South American blastomycosis. Histopathology 1978; 2:231–7.
306. Chaib E, de OC, Prado PS, Santana LL, Toloi JN, de MJ. Obstructive jaundice caused by blastomycosis of the lymph nodes around the common bile duct. Arq Gastroenterol 1988;25:198–202.