Benefits and costs of artificial nighttime lighting of the environment

Environmental Reviews

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 14-23

  Gaston, Kevin J ^a   Gaston, Sian ^a   Bennie, Jonathan ^a   Hopkins, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

accidents; aesthetics; crime; ecosystems; health; light pollution; lighting; night; sky glow; wellbeing

Indexed keywords

COSTS; CRIME; ECOLOGY; ECOSYSTEMS; ENERGY UTILIZATION; HEALTH; LIGHTING;

AESTHETICS; LIGHT POLLUTION; NIGHT; SKY GLOW; WELLBEING;

ACCIDENTS;

EID: 84924529950     PISSN: 11818700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/er-2014-0041     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Alliance for Solid-State Illumination Systems and Technologies (ASSIST). 2012. ASSIST recommends. Flicker parameters for reducing stroboscopic effects from solid-state lighting systems. Lighting Research Center, Troy, New York. http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/solidstate/assist/recommends/flicker.asp [accessed May 2014].
2. Assum, T., Bjornskau, T.Ø., Fosser, S., and Sagberg, F. 1999. Risk compensation- the case for road lighting. Accident Analysis Prev. 31: 545-553. doi:10.1016/ S0001-4575(99)00011-1.
3. Atkins, S, Hussain, S., and Storey, A. 1991. The influence of street lighting on crime and fear of crime. Crime Prevention Unit Paper 28 Home Office, Crown Publications, London.
4. Aubé, M., Roby, J., and Kocifaj, M. 2013. Evaluating potential spectral impacts of various artificial lights on melatonin suppression, photosynthesis, and star visibility. PLoS One, 8: e67798. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067798. PMID: 23861808.
5. Bauer, S.E., Wagner, S.E., Burch, J., Bayakly, R., and Vena, J.E. 2013. A casereferent study: light at night and breast cancer risk in Georgia. Int. J. Health Geog. 12: 23. doi:10.1186/1476-072X-12-23.
6. Bedrosian, T.A, Fonken, L.K., Walton, J.C., Haim, A., and Nelson, R.J. 2011a. Dim light at night provokes depression-like behaviors and reduces CA1 dendritic spine density in female hamsters. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36: 1062- 1069. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.01.004. PMID:21292405.
7. Bedrosian, T.A., Fonken, L.K., Walton, J.C., and Nelson, R.J. 2011b. Chronic exposure to dim light at night suppresses immune responses in Siberian hamsters. Biol. Lett. 7: 468-471. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1108. PMID:21270021.
8. Beersma, D.G.M., Daan, S., and Hut, R.A. 1999. Accuracy of circadian entrainment under fluctuating light conditions: contributions of phase and period responses. J. Biol. Rhythms, 14: 320-329. PMID:10447313.
9. Beier, P. 2006. Effects of artificial night lighting on terrestrial mammals. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp 19-42.
10. Berman, S.M., Greenhouse, D.S., Bailey, I.L., Clear, R., and Raasch, T.W. 1991. Human electroretinogram responses to video displays, fluorescent lighting and other high frequency sources. Optometry Vision Sci. 68: 645-662. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199108000-00012.
11. Beyer, F.R., and Ker, K. 2010. Street lighting for preventing road traffic injuries. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009: 1.
12. Bird, B.L., Branch, L.C., and Miller, D.L. 2004. Effects of coastal lighting on foraging behaviour of beach mice. Conserv. Biol. 18: 1435-1439. doi:10.1111/j.1523- 1739.2004.00349.x.
13. Boyce, P.R. 2010. The impact of light in buildings on human health. Indoor Built Environ. 19: 8-20. doi:10.1177/1420326X09358028.
14. Brätt, J., James, G., Price, R., and Sewell, J. 2010. Best Practices in Place Making Through Illumination. Virginia Tech Urban Affairs and Planning Program Report.
15. Buckinghamshire County Council Report. 2012. www.transportfor bucks.net/roadworks-centre/streetlighting works/streetlighting energy savingtrial.asp [accessed December 2012].
16. Bullough, J.D., Donnell, E.T., and Rea, M.S. 2013. To illuminate or not to illuminate: roadway lighting as it affects traffic safety at intersections. Accident Analysis Prevent. 53: 65-77. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2012.12.029.
17. Burns, S.A., Elsner, A.E., and Kreitz, M.R. 1992. Analysis of nonlinearities in the flicker ERG. Optometry Vision Sci.69:95-105.doi:10.1097/00006324-199202000- 00002.
18. Cajochen, C., Frey, S., Anders, D., Spätl, J., Bues, M., Pross, A., Mager, R., Wirz-Justice, A., and Stephani, O. 2011. Evening exposure to a light-emitting diodes (LED)-backlit computer screen affects circadian physiology and cognitive performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 110: 1432-1438. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol. 00165.2011. PMID:21415172.
19. Chang, A-M., Santhi, N., St Hilaire, M., Gronfier, C., Bradstreet, D.S., Duffy, J.F., Lockley, S.W., Kronauer, R.E., and Czeisler, C.A. 2012. Human responses to bright light of different durations. J. Physiol. 590: 3103-3112. doi:10.1113/ jphysiol.2011.226555. PMID:22526883.
20. Chellappa, S.L., Steiner, R., Blattner, P., Oelhafen, P., Götz, T., and Cajochen, C. 2011. Nonvisual effects of light on melatonin, alertness and cognitive performance: can blue-enriched light keep us alert? PLoS One, 6: e16429. doi:10. 1371/journal.pone.0016429. PMID:21298068.
21. CIE. 2007. Road transport lighting for developing countries. CIE, Vienna.
22. Cinzano, P., Falchi, F., and Elvidge, C.D. 2001. The first world atlas of the artificial night sky brightness. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 328: 689-707. 10.1046/j.1365- 8711.2001.04882.x.
23. City of Melbourne Lighting Strategy. 2002. www.melbourne.vic.gov.au [accessed January 2013].
24. Cohen, M., Lippman, M., and Chabner, B. 1978. Role of pineal gland in aetiology and treatment of breast cancer. The Lancet, 312: 814-816. doi:10.1016/S0140- 6736(78)92591-6.
25. Corfitsen, M.T. 1996. Enhanced tiredness among young impaired male nighttime drivers. Accident Analysis Prevent. 28: 155-162. doi:10.1016/0001- 4575(95)00042-9.
26. Cos, S., Mediavilla, D., Martínez-Campa, C., González, A., Alonso-González, C., and Sánchez-Barceló, E.J. 2006. Exposure to light-at-night increases the growth of DMBA-induced mammary adenocarcinomas in rats. Cancer Lett. 235: 266-271. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2005.04.025. PMID:15950374.
27. Crabb, G.I., and Crinson, L. 2008. The impact of street lighting on nighttime road casualties. Transport Research Laboratory, Wokingham, Berkshire.
28. Davies, T.W., Bennie, J., and Gaston, K.J. 2012. Street lighting changes the composition of invertebrate communities. Biol. Lett. 8: 764-767. doi:10.1098/rsbl. 2012.0216. PMID:22628095.
29. Davies, T.W., Bennie, J., Inger, R., Hempel de Ibarra, N., and Gaston, K.J. 2013. Artificial light pollution: are shifting spectral signatures changing the balance of species interactions? Global Change Biol. 19: 1417-1423. doi:10.1111/ gcb.12166.
30. Dawson, J. 2008. Feature lighting in Liverpool City centre: an impact assessment of the citys lighting programme. North West Regional Development Agency, Liverpool City Council, and Liverpool Vision, Liverpool.
31. Dominoni, D., Quetting, M., and Partecke, J. 2013. Artificial light at night advances avian reproductive physiology. Proc. R. Soc. B, 280: 20123017. doi:10. 1098/rspb.2012.3017.
32. Duffy, J.F. and Wright, K.P., Jr. 2005. Entrainment of the human circadian system by light. J. Biol. Rhythms, 20: 326-338. PMID:16077152.
33. Elvidge, C.D., Keith, D.M., Tuttle, B.T., and Baugh, K.E. 2010. Spectral identification of lighting type and character. Sensors, 10: 3961-3988. doi:10.3390/ s100403961. PMID:22319336.
34. Emerson, R.W. 1860. XVII. Worship. In Emerson, R.W. Essays and English traits. The Harvard Classics.
35. Erren, T.C., and Reiter, R.J. 2009. Light hygiene: time to make preventive use of insights-old and new-into the nexus of the drug light, melatonin, clocks, chronodisruption and public health. Medical Hyp. 73: 537-541. doi:10.1016/j. mehy.2009.06.003.
36. Evans, J.A., Elliott, J.A., and Gorman, M.R. 2007. Circadian effects of light no brighter than moonlight. J. Biol. Rhythms, 22: 356-367. PMID:17660452.
37. Falchi, F., Cinzano, P., Elvidge, C.D., Keith, D.M., and Haim, A. 2011. Limiting the impact of light pollution on human health, environment and stellar visibility. J. Environ. Manage. 92: 2714-2722. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.029. PMID:21745709.
38. Farrington, D.P., and Welsh, B.C. 2002. Effects of street lighting on crime: a systematic review. HMSO, London.
39. Farrington, D.P., and Welsh, B.C. 2007. Improved street lighting: a systematic review. The Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention, Stockholm.
40. Fleming, R., and Burrows, J. 1986. The case for lighting as a means of preventing crime. Home Office Res. Bull. 22: 14-17.
41. Fonken, L.F., and Nelson, R.J. 2011. Illuminating the deleterious effects of light at night. F1000 Medicine Rep. 3: 18.
42. Frank, K.D. 2006. Effect of artificial night lighting on moths. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 305-344.
43. Frank, K.D. 2009. Exploitation of artificial light at night by a jumping spider. Peckhamia, 78: 1-3.
44. Garber, S.D. 1978. Opportunistic feeding behaviour of Anolis cristatellus (Iguanidae: Reptilia) in Puerto Rico. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 81: 19-80.
45. Gaston, K.J. 2013. A green light for efficiency. Nature, 497: 560-561. doi:10.1038/ 497560a. PMID:23719447.
46. Gaston, K.J. (Editor) 2010. Urban ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
47. Gaston, K.J., Davies, T.W., Bennie, J., and Hopkins, J. 2012. Reducing the ecological consequences of night-time light pollution: options and developments. J. Appl. Ecol. 49: 1256-1266. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02212.x. PMID: 23335816.
48. Gaston, K.J., Bennie, J., Davies, T.W., and Hopkins, J. 2013. The ecological impacts of nighttime light pollution: a mechanistic appraisal. Biol. Rev. 88: 912-927. PMID:23565807.
49. Gooley, J., Chamberlain, K., Smith, K.A., Khasala, S.B.S., Czeisler, C.A., and Lockley, S.W. 2011. Exposure to room light before bedtime suppresses melatonin onset and shortens melatonin duration in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96: E463-E472. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2098. PMID:21193540.
50. Haans, A., and de Kort, Y.A.W. 2012. Light distribution in dynamic street lighting: two experimental studies on its effects on perceived safety, prospect, concealment, and escape. J. Environ. Psychol. 32: 342-352. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp. 2012.05.006.
51. Hale, J.D., Davies, G., Fairbrass, A.J., Matthews, T.J., Rogers, C.D.F., and Sadler, J.P. 2013. Mapping lightscapes: spatial patterning of artificial lighting in an urban landscape. PLoS One, 8: e61460. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061460.
52. Hansard, 2013. Available from www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/ cmhansard/ [accessed April 2013].
53. Hazell, J., and Wilkins, A. 1990. A contribution of fluorescent lighting to agoraphobia. Psychol. Medicine, 20: 591-596.
54. Hébert, M., Martin, S.K., Lee, C., and Eastman, C.I. 2002. The effects of prior light history on the suppression of melatonin by light in humans. J. Pineal Res. 33: 198-203. doi:10.1034/j.1600-079X.2002.01885.x. PMID:12390501.
55. Holman, D.C. 2010. Whats in a colour? The unique human health effects of blue light. Environ. Health Perspectives, 118: A22-27. doi:10.1289/ehp.118-a22.
56. IARC. 2010. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs 98, Lyon.
57. IDSA. 2013. International Dark-Sky Association Dark Sky Park Program Criteria [online]. IDSA, Tucson. Available from http://www.darksky.org/idsp/ Guidelines/IDSP%20Guildelines%20Final-May13-BP.pdf [accessed November 2013].
58. IEE. 2010. Standard P1789. Available from http:/grouper.ieee.org/groups/1789 [accessed March 2013].
59. Illinois Coalition for Responsible Lighting. 2011. Available from http:// www.illinoislighting.org/moonlight.html [accessed December 2012].
60. Inger, R., Bennie, J., Davies, T., and Gaston, K.J. 2014. Potential biological and ecological effects of flickering artificial light. PLoS One, 9: e98631. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0098631. PMID:24874801.
61. International Energy Agency. 2006. Lights labours lost: policies for energyefficient lighting. International Energy Agency, Paris.
62. International Initiative in Defence of the Quality of the Night Sky as Mankinds Scientific, Cultural and Environmental Heritage. 2012. Available from http:// www.starlight2007.net/index.php?option=com-content&view=article&id= 169&Itemid=158&lang=en [accessed June 2014].
63. Jakle, J.A. 2001. City lights: illuminating the American night. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
64. Kempenaers, B., Borgström, P., Los, P., Schlicht, E., and Valcu, M. 2010. Artificial night lighting affects dawn song, extra-pair siring success, and lay date in songbirds. Current Biol. 20: 1735-1739. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.028.
65. Kloog, I., Stevens, R.G., Haim, A., and Portnov, B.A. 2010. Nighttime light levels co-distribute with breast cancer incidence worldwide. Cancer Causes Control, 21: 2059-2068. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9624-4. PMID:20680434.
66. Koslofsky, C. 2011. Evenings empire: a history of the night in early modern Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
67. Kubo, T., Ozasa, K., Mikami, K., Wakai, K., Fujino, Y., Watanabe, Y., Miki, T., Nakao, M., Hayashi, K., Suzuki, K., Mori, M., Washio, M., Sakauchi, F., Ito, Y., Yoshimura, T., and Tamakoshi, A. 2006. Prospective cohort study of the risk of prostate cancer among rotating-shift workers: findings from the Japan collaborative cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 164: 549-555. doi:10.1093/aje/ kwj232. PMID:16829554.
68. Kuijper, D.P.J., Schut, J., van Dullemen, D., Toorman, H., Goossens, N., Ouwehand, J., and Limpens, H.J.G.A. 2008. Experimental evidence of light disturbance along the commuting routes of pond bats (Myotis dasycneme). Lutra, 51: 37-49.
69. Kyba, C.C.M., Ruhtz, T., Fischer, J., and Hölker, F. 2011. Cloud coverage acts as an amplifier for ecological light pollution in urban ecosystems. PLoS One, 6: e17307. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017307. PMID:21399694.
70. Kyba, C.C.M., Ruhtz, T., Fischer, J., and Hölker, F. 2012. Red is the new black: how the colour of urban skyglow varies with cloud cover. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 425: 701-708. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21559.x.
71. Lewy, A.J. 1983. Effects of light on human melatonin production and the human circadian system. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psych. 7: 551-556. doi: 10.1016/0278-5846(83)90024-6.
72. Lin, M.C., Kripke, D.F., Parry, B.L., and Berga, S.L. 1990. Night light alters menstrual cycles. Psychiatry Research,33: 135-138. doi:10.1016/0165-1781(90)90067- F. PMID:2243890.
73. Longcore, T., and Rich, C. 2004. Ecological light pollution. Frontiers Ecol. Environ. 2: 191-198. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:ELP]2.0.CO;2.
74. Lorne, J.K., and Salmon, M. 2007. Effects of exposure to artificial lighting on orientation of hatchling sea turtles on the beach and in the ocean. Endangered Species Res. 3: 23-30. doi:10.3354/esr003023.
75. Luginbuhl, C.B., Boley, P.A., and Davis, D.R. 2014. The impact of light source spectral power distribution on sky glow. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 139: 21-26. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2013.12.004.
76. Lyytimäki, J. 2013. Natures nocturnal services: light pollution as a nonrecognised challenge for ecosystem services research and management. Ecosyst. Serv. 3: e44-e48. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.12.001.
77. Mainster, M.A., and Timberlake, G.T. 2003. Why HID headlights bother older drivers. Brit. J. Opthalmol. 87: 113-117. doi:10.1136/bjo.87.1.113.
78. Mansfield, K., and Raynham, P. 2005. Sustainable urban lighting for town centre regeneration. Lux Europa, Berlin.
79. Marchant, P. 2004. A demonstration that the claim that brighter lighting reduces crime is unfounded. Brit. J. Criminol. 44: 441-447. doi:10.1093/bjc/ azh009.
80. Marchant, P. 2005. What works? A critical note on the evaluation of crime reduction initiatives. Crime Prev. Comm. Safety, 7: 7-13.
81. Marchant, P. 2010. What is the contribution of street lighting to keeping us safe? An investigation into a policy. Radical Stat. 102: 32-42.
82. Martin, G. 1990. Birds by night. T. and A.D. Poyser, London.
83. Miller, M.W. 2006. Apparent effects of light pollution on singing behavior of American robins. Condor, 108: 130-139. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2006)108[0130: AEOLPO]2.0.CO;2.
84. Mills, E. 2005. The specter of fuel-based lighting. Science, 308: 1263-1264. doi: 10.1126/science.1113090. PMID:15919979.
85. Moore, M.V., Pierce, S.M., Walsh, H.M., Kvalvik, S.K., and Lim, J.D. 2001. Urban light pollution alters the diel vertical migration of Daphnia. Verh. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 27: 779-782.
86. Moore, M.V., Kohler, S.J., and Cheers, M.S. 2006. Artificial light at night in freshwater habitats and its potential ecological effects. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 365-384.
87. Müller, B., Glösmann, M., Peichl, L., Knop, G.C., Hagemann, C., and Ammermüller, J. 2009. Bat eyes have ultraviolet-sensitive cone photoreceptors. PLoS One, 4: e6390. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006390. PMID:19636375.
88. Navara, K.J., and Nelson, R.J. 2007. The dark side of light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences. J. Pineal Res. 43: 215-224. doi:10.1111/j.1600-079X.2007.00473.x. PMID:17803517.
89. Negro, J.J., Bustamante, J., Melguizo, C., Ruiz, J.L., and Grande, J.M. 2000. Nocturnal activity of lesser kestrels under artificial lighting conditions in Seville, Spain. J. Raptor Res. 34: 327-329.
90. Nightingale, B., Longcore, T., and Simenstad, C.A. 2006. Artificial night lighting and fishes. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 257-276.
91. OLeary, E.S., Schoenfeld, E.R., Stevens, R.G., Kabat, G.C., Henderson, K., Grimson, R., Gammon, M.D., and Leske, M.C. 2006. Electromagnetic fields and breast cancer a Long Island study group: shift work, light at night and breast cancer on Long Island, New York. Am. J. Epidemiol. 164: 358-366. doi:10.1093/aje/kwj211. PMID:16777931.
92. Packer, C., Swanson, A., Ikanda, D., and Kushnir, H. 2011. Fear of darkness, the full moon and the nocturnal ecology of African lions. PLoS One, 6: e22285. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022285. PMID:21799812.
93. Painter, K. 1989. Lighting and crime prevention for community safety: the Tower Hamlets study, First Report. Centre for Criminology, Middlesex Polytechnic, London.
94. Painter, K., and Farrington, D.P. 1997. The crime reducing effect of improved street lighting: the Dudley project. In Situational crime prevention: successful case studies. Edited by R.V. Clarke, Harrow and Heston, Guilderland, New York pp. 209-226.
95. Painter, K., and Farrington, D.P. 1999. Street lighting and crime: the diffusion of benefits in the Stoke-on-Trent project. In Surveillance of public space: CCTV, street lighting and crime prevention. Edited by K. Painter and N. Tilley. Crime Prev. Stud. 10: 77-122.
96. Parry, B.L., and Newton, R.P. 2001. Chronobiological basis of female-specific mood disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 25: S102-108. doi:10.1016/S0893- 133X(01)00340-2. PMID:11682284.
97. Pease, K. 1999. A review of street lighting evaluations: crime reduction effects. Crime Prev. Stud. 10: 47-76.
98. Perkin, E.K., Hölker, F., Richardson, J.S., Sadler, J.P., Wolter, C., and Tockner, K. 2011. The influence of artificial light on stream and riparian ecosystems: questions, challenges, and perspectives. Ecosphere, 2: 122. doi:10.1890/ES11- 00241.1.
99. Perry, G., and Fisher, R.N. 2006. Night lights and reptiles: observed and potential effects. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 169-191. Phillips. 2012. www.gov.today.co.uk [accessed June 2014].
100. Plainis, S., Murray, I.J., and Pallikaris, I.G. 2006. Road traffic casualties: understanding the night-time death toll. Injury Prevention, 12: 125-138. doi:10.1136/ ip.2005.011056. PMID:16595429.
101. Polak, T., Korine, C., Yair, S., and Holderied, M.W. 2011. Differential effects of artificial lighting on flight and foraging behaviour of two sympatric bat species in a desert. J. Zool. 285: 21-27. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00808.x.
102. Pun, C.S.J., and So, C.W. 2011. Night-sky brightness monitoring in Hong Kong. A city-wide assessment. Environ. Monitor. Assess. 184: 2537-2557.
103. Ramsey, M. 1991. The effect of better street lighting: a review. Crime Prevention Unit Paper 29, Crown Publications, London.
104. Raynham, P. 2007. Public lighting in cities. In: Proceedings of the International Conference Iluminat 2007. Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
105. Raynham, P., and Saksvikronning, T. 2003. White light and facial recognition. The Lighting Journal, 68: 29-33.
106. Republic of Ghana Department of Energy. 2011. Available from http:// www.energymin.gov.gh/wp-content/upLoads/Draft-Street-Lighting-Policy- August-14-2011.pdf [accessed May 2013].
107. Rich, C., and Longcore, T. 2006a. Introduction. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 1-13.
108. Rich, C., and Longcore, T. (eds) 2006b. Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
109. Riegel, K.W. 1973. Light pollution. Science, 179: 1285-1291. doi:10.1126/science. 179.4080.1285. PMID:17835929.
110. Riley, W.D., Bendall, B., Ives, M.J., Edmonds, N.J., and Maxwell, D.L. 2012. Street lighting disrupts the diel migratory pattern of wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts leaving their natal stream. Aquaculture, 330-333: 74-81. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.12.009.
111. Riley, W.D., Davison, P.I., Maxwell, D.L., and Bendall, B. 2013. Street lighting delays and disrupts the dispersal of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fry. Biol. Conserv. 158: 140-146. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.022.
112. Rodríguez, A., Rodríguez, B., and Lucas, M.P. 2012. Trends in numbers of petrels attracted to artificial lights suggest population declines in Tenerife, Canary Islands. Ibis, 154: 167-172. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2011.01175.x.
113. Rotics, S., Dayan, T., and Kronfeld-Schor, N. 2011. Effect of artificial night lighting on temporally partitioned spiny mice. J. Mammal. 92: 159-168. doi:10. 1644/10-MAMM-A-112.1.
114. Rydell, J. 2006. Bats and their insect prey at streetlights. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 43-60.
115. Saha, S., and Sassone-Corsi, P. 2007. Circadian clock and breast cancer: a molecular link. Cell Cycle, 6: 1329-1331. doi:10.4161/cc.6.11.4295. PMID:17534151.
116. Santos, C.D., Miranda, A.C., Granadeiro, J.P., Loureno, P.M., Saraiva, S., and Palmeirim, J.M. 2010. Effects of artificial illumination on the nocturnal foraging of waders. Acta Oecologica, 36: 166-172. doi:10.1016/j.actao.2009.11.008.
117. Schumacher, B.J., and Leitner, M. 1999. Spatial crime displacement resulting from large-scale urban renewal programs in the city of Baltimore. IV. International Conference of Geographical Computation, GeoComputation 99, www.geovista.psu.edu.geocomp [accessed January 2013].
118. Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks. 2012. Health Effects of Artificial Light. European Commission, Brussels.
119. Sherman, L., Gottfredson, D., Mackenzie, D., Eck, J., Reuter, P., and Bushway, S. 1997. Preventing crime: what works, what doesnt, whats promising. US Department of Justice, Washington, D.C.
120. Small, C., and Elvidge, C.D. 2013. Night on earth: mapping decadal changes of anthropogenic night light in Asia. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinfor. 22(S1): 40-52. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2012.02.009.
121. Stevens, R.G. 2009. Light at night, circadian disruption and breast cancer: assessment of existing evidence. Int. J. Epidemiol. 38: 963-970. doi:10.1093/ije/ dyp178. PMID:19380369.
122. Stone, E.L., Jones, G., and Harris, S. 2009. Street lighting disturbs commuting bats. Current Biol. 19: 1123-1127. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.058.
123. Stone, E.L., Jones, G., and Harris, S. 2012. Conserving energy at a cost to biodiversity? Impacts of LED lighting on bats. Global Change Biol. 18: 2458-2465. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02705.x.
124. Straif, K., Baan, R., Grosse, Y., Secretan, B., Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Altieri, A., Benbrahimtallaa, L., and Cogliano, V. 2007. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. Lancet Oncol. 8: 1065-1066. doi:10.1016/S1470- 2045(07)70373-X. PMID:19271347.
125. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. 2009. Artificial light in the environment. TSO, London.
126. UK Highways Agency. 2007. Advice Note TA49/07. Design manual for roads and bridges 8. HMSO, London.
127. UNEP. 2013. Available from http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=2704&ArticleID=9407&l=en [accessed June 2014].
128. van Langevelde, F., Ettema, J.A., Donners, M., WallisDeVries, M.F., and Groenendijk, D. 2011. Effect of spectral composition of artificial light on the attraction of moths. Biol. Conserv. 144: 2274-2281. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011. 06.004.
129. Vanderwalle, G., Schwartz, S., Grandjean, D., Wuillaume, C., Balteau, E., Degueldre, C., Schabus, M., Phillips, C., Luxen, A., Dijk, D.J., and Maquet, P. 2010. Spectral quality of light modulates emotional brain responses in humans. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., U.S.A. 107: 19549-19554. doi:10.1073/pnas. 1010180107. PMID:20974959.
130. Wahnschaffe, A., Haedel, S., Rodenbeck, A., Stoll, C., Rudolph, H., Kozakov, R., Schoepp, H., and Kunz, D. 2013. Out of the lab and into the bathroom: evening short-term exposure to conventional light suppresses melatonin and increases alertness perception. Int. J. Molecular Sci. 14: 2573-2589. doi:10. 3390/ijms14022573.
131. Warrant, E., and Dacke, M. 2010. Visual orientation and navigation in nocturnal arthropods. Brain Behav. Evol. 75: 156-173. doi:10.1159/000314277. PMID: 20733292.
132. Warwickshire County Council Final Report. 2012. Available from http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/wccweb.nsf/Links/1E327B0D7FF4BDB4802579FF002F2B3F/$file/Item+5+-+Street+Lighting+ Task+and+Finish+Group+Report.pdf [accessed April 2013].
133. Welsh, B.C., and Farrington, D.P. 2008. Effects of improved street lighting on crime. Campbell Syst. Rev. 2008: 13.
134. Winterbottom, M., and Wilkins, A. 2009. Lighting and discomfort in the Witherington, B.E., and Bjorndal, K.A. 1991. Influences of artificial lighting on the seaward orientation of hatchling loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. Biol. Conserv. 55: 139-149. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90053-C.
135. Wolff, R.J. 1982. Nocturnal activity under artificial lights by the jumping spider Sitticus fasciger. Peckhamia, 2: 32.
136. Woo, K.L., Hunt, M., Harper, D., Nelson, N.J., Daugherty, C.H., and Bell, B.D. 2009. Discrimination of flicker frequency rates in the reptile tuatara (Sphenodon). Naturwissenschaften, 96: 415-419. doi:10.1007/s00114-008-0491-8. PMID:19089401.
137. World Health Organisation. 2008. Global burden of disease (2004 update). WHO, Switzerland.
138. World Health Organisation. 2009. Global status report on road safety. WHO Department of Violence and Injury Prevention and Disability, Switzerland.
139. Wyse, C.A., Selman, C., Page, M.M., Coogan, A.N., and Hazlerigg, D.G. 2011. Circadian desynchrony and metabolic dysfunction; did light pollution make us fat? Medical Hyp. 77: 1139-1144. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2011.09.023.
140. Xuan, F., Hu, K., Zhu, T., Racey, P., Wang, X., and Sun, Y. 2012. Behavioral evidence for cone-based ultraviolet vision in divergent bat species and implications for its evolution. Zoologia, 29: 109-114. doi:10.1590/S1984-46702012000200002.
141. Zeitzer, J.M., Dijk, D.J., Kronauer, R., Brown, E., and Czeisler, C. 2000. Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting and suppression. J. Physiol. 526: 695-702. PMID:10922269.
142. Zhao, H., Rossiter, S.J., Teeling, E.C., Li, C., Cotton, J.A., and Zhang, S. 2009. The evolution of color vision in nocturnal mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106: 8980-8985. doi:10.1073/pnas.0813201106. PMID:19470491.