The making of the cold war enemy: Culture and politics in the military-intellectual complex

The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-277

  Robin, Ron ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84923997898     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (499)

1. Tamotsu Shibutani, Improvised News: A Sociological Study of Rumor (Indianapolis, 1966).
2. H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination (New York, 1988).
3. Shibutani, Improvised News, 108.
4. Rebecca Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), 1.
5. Eva Etzioni-Halevy, The Knowledge Elite and the Failure of Prophecy (London, 1985), provides a succinct description of this fatal conflation of theory and policy.
6. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley, Calif., 1995).
7. Anatol Rapoport, "Critique of Strategic Thinking," in Roger Fisher (ed.), International Conflict and Behavioral Science (New York, 1964), 234.
8. Gabriel Weimann, "The Theater of Terror: Effects of Press Coverage," Journal of Communication 33 (1983): 33-45.Weimann accords authorship of the term to Brian Jenkins of the Rand Corporation.
9. For some recent examples, see Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (Stanford, Calif., 1991);
10. John Baylis and John Garnett (eds.), Makers of Nuclear Strategy (London, 1991);
11. Stuart Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993).
12. This felicitous phrase belongs to Richard Barnet, Roots of War (New York, 1972).
13. For a historiographical introduction to this often forgotten war, see Rosemary Foot, "Making Known the UnknownWar: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict Since the Early 1980s," in Michael Hogan (ed.), America in the World: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations Since 1941 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 270-99.
14. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, 1962).
15. See Gary Gutting (ed.), Paradigms and Revolutions; Appraisals and Applications of Thomas Kuhn's Philosophy of Science (Notre Dame, Ind., 1980), for a comprehensive survey of the application of paradigms in a wide array of academic fields.
16. Kuhn, Structure, x.
17. For comprehensive, retrospective reflections on TAS, see Robin Williams, "The American Soldier, an Assessment, Several Wars Later," Public Opinion Quarterly 53 (1989): 155-74
18. "The American Soldier and Social Psychology," Social Psychology Quarterly 47 (June 1984): 184-13.
19. Ethel Shanas, "Review of TAS," American Journal of Sociology 55 (November 1949): 590-94.
20. Nathan Glazer, " 'The American Soldier' as Science: Can Sociology Fulfil its Ambitions?" Commentary 8 (1949): 491.
21. Arthur Schlesinger Jr., "The Statistical Soldier," Partisan Review 16 (1949): 852-56.
22. John Riley, "Review of 'TAS'," American Sociological Review 14 (1949): 557-59;
23. Paul Lazarsfeld, "The American Soldier: An Expository Review," Public Opinion Quarterly 13 (Fall 1949): 377-404.
24. Hana Selvin, "Methods of Survey Analysis," in David Shils (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 15 (New York, 1968), 411-18;
25. Robin Williams, "Sociology in America: The Experiences of Two Centuries," Social Science Quarterly 57 (June 1976): 77-111.
26. Riley, "Review"; Lazarsfeld, " 'The American Soldier.' "
27. Daniel Lerner, "The 'American Soldier' and the Public," in Robert Merton and Paul Lazarsfeld (eds.), Continuities in Social Research: Studies in the Scope of and Method of the American Soldier (Glencoe, Ill., 1950), 212-47.
28. Robin Williams, "The American Soldier: An Assessment, Several Wars Later," Public Opinion Quarterly 53 (1989): 155-73.
29. TAS, vol. 1, 250-58, 550-66;
30. Glazer, "The American Soldier as Science," 493;
31. Robert Merton and Alice Kitt, "Contributions to the Theory of Reference Group Behavior," in Merton and Lazarsfeld, Continuities in Social Research;
32. Robin Williams, "Relative Deprivation," in Lewis Coser (ed.), The Idea of Social Structure: Papers in Honor of Robert K. Merton (New York, 1975), 355-73.
33. Williams, " 'The American Soldier,' " 167.
34. Henrika Kuklick, "A 'Scientific Revolution': Sociological Theory in the United States, 1930-1945," Sociological Inquiry 43 (1973): 3-22;
35. William Sewell, "Some Reflections on the Golden Age of Interdisciplinary Social Psychology," Annual Review of Sociology 15 (1989): 1-16.
36. Robert Dahl, "The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest," in Heinz Eulau (ed.), Behavioralism in Political Science (New York, 1969), 71.
37. M. Brewster Smith, "The American Soldier and Its Critics: What Survives the Attack on Positivism?" Social Psychology Quarterly 47 (June 1984): 192-97.
38. For an excellent discussion of general trends in the social and behavioral sciences during World War II and the Cold War, see Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), chapters 4-6.
39. Robert Bannister, Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987), 6.
40. On the formation of epistemic communities, see the excellent special edition of International Organization 46 (Winter 1992).
41. David Hollinger, "Science as a Weapon in Kulturkampfe in the United States During World War II," ISIS 86 (1995): 440-54.
42. Carl Pfaffmann in "Hearings on Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research," 120.
43. For early forays into universalist social and behavioral theory, see the classic study by Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (Glencoe, Ill., 1949).
44. See the various disciplinary treatises in Bernard Berelson (ed.), The Behavioral Sciences Today (New York, 1963).
45. James Charlesworth, "Foreword," in James Charlesworth (ed.), The Limits of Behavioralism in Political Science (Philadelphia, 1965), iv.
46. Harvard University, The Behavioral Sciences at Harvard (Cambridge, Mass., 1954);
47. University of Chicago Behavioral Sciences Self-Study Committee, Report on the Behavioral Sciences at the University of Chicago (Chicago, 1954).
48. Edward Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (New York, 1998).
49. Robert Merton and Daniel Lerner, "Social Scientists and Research Policy," in Daniel Lerner and Harold Lasswell (eds.), The Policy Sciences: Recent Developments in Scope and Method (Stanford, Calif., 1951), 284.
50. James Miller, "Toward a General Theory of the Behavioral Sciences," in Leonard White (ed.), The State of the Social Sciences (Chicago, 1956), 29-65.
51. Bernard Berelson, "Introduction to the Behavioral Sciences," in Berelson, The Behavioral Sciences Today, 1-11
52. David Easton, A Framework for Political Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965), 12-13.
53. David Thelen, "Memory and American History," Journal of American History 75 (March 1989): 1117-29.
54. Miller, "Toward a General Theory."
55. John Dewey and Arthur Bentley, Knowing and the Known (Boston, 1949), 65.
56. Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1953 (New York, 1953), 64.
57. Sam Bass Warner, The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968).
58. Michael Latham, "Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny: Modernization and the Kennedy-Era Alliance for Progress," Diplomatic History 22 (Spring 1998): 203.
59. Dean Tipps, "Modernization Theory and the Comparative Study of Societies: A Critical Perspective," Comparative Studies in Society and History 15 (March, 1973): 199-226.
60. For concise explanations of modernization theory, see Daniel Lerner, "Modernization: Social Aspects," in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 9 (New York, 1968), 386-94;
61. James Coleman, "Modernization: Political Aspects," ibid., 395-402;
62. Ronald Dore, "The Bourgeoisie in Modernizing Societies," ibid., 402-9;
63. Michael Haas, Polity and Society: Philosophical Underpinnings of Social Science Paradigms (New York, 1992), 13-57.
64. Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (New York, 1963).
65. Edward Shils, Political Development in the New States (The Hague, 1965), 10.
66. For an elaboration on the theme of modernization and diffusion, see the important study: Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (Glencoe, Ill., 1962).
67. David McClelland, "The Impulse to Modernization," in Myron Weiner (ed.), Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth (New York, 1961), 17;
68. idem, "The Achievement Motive in Economic Growth," in Bert Hoselitz and Wilbert Moore (eds.), Industrialization and Society (The Hague, 1963), 74-96.
69. McClelland, "The Achievement Motive."
70. Alex Inkeles and David Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass., 1974).
71. See also Leonard Doob, Becoming More Civilized (New Haven, 1960).
72. On the political reception of modernization theory, see Latham, "Ideology, Social Science, and Destiny."
73. Robert Rhodes, "The Disguised Conservatism in Evolutionary Development Theory," Science and Society 32 (Fall 1968): 385.
74. Carl Pletsch, "The Three Worlds, or the Division of Social Scientific Labor, circa 1950-1975," Comparative Studies in Society and History 23(October, 1981): 577.
75. See, for example, Pitirim Sorokin, "Mutual Convergence of the United States and the U.S.S.R. to the Mixed Sociocultural Type," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 1 (1960): 143-76;
76. Marion Levy, Modernization and the Structure of Societies vol. 2 (Princeton, 1966), 709.
77. Franz Samelson, "Organizing for the Kingdom of Behavior: Academic Battles and Organizational Policies in the Twenties," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 21 (January 1985): 39.
78. Dennis Smith, The Chicago School: A Liberal Critique of Capitalism (London, 1988);
79. Martin Bulmer, The Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity, and the Rise of Sociological Research (Chicago, 1984).
80. Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York, 1993), 93.
81. Gene Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1969);
82. Samuel Klausner and Victor Lidz (eds.), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia, 1986).
83. See, for example, Edward H. Berman, The Ideology of Philanthropy: The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (New York, 1983);
84. Roger Geiger, "American Foundations and Academic Social Science, 1945-1960," Minerva 26: 3 (Autumn 1988): 315-41;
85. Donald Fisher, "The Role of Philanthropic Foundations in the Reproduction and Production of Hegemony: Rockefeller Foundations and the Social Sciences," Sociology 17 (May 1983): 206-33.
86. For a dissenting opinion, see Martin Bulmer, "Philanthropic Foundations and the Development of the Social Sciences in the Early Twentieth Century," Sociology 18 (November 1984): 572-79.
87. Alvin Gouldner, The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology (New York, 1971), 188-96.
88. Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York, 1991), 400.
89. Bulmer, "Philanthropic Foundations."
90. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 101.
91. This explanation is partly belied by Ford's continuing financial support for behavioral sciences projects. Even after the division's expiration, the behavioral sciences continued to enjoy funding issued under different headings and through grants to individual researchers who supported the behavioralist persuasion. See Ford Foundation Annual Report, October 1, 1956 to September 30, 1957 (New York, 1957)15, 78-87.
92. Geiger, "American Foundations and Academic Social Science," 318.
93. Thomas Schelling, "Models of Segregation," American Economic Review 59 (1969): 488-93;
94. "Dynamic Models of Segregation," Journal of Mathematical Sociology 1 (1971): 143-86;
95. "What is the Business of Organized Crime?" American Scholar 40 (1971): 643-52;
96. Micromotives and Macrobehavior (New York, 1978).
97. Morris Janowitz, "Remarks," in William Lybrand (ed.), "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited-War Mission and Social Science Research"(Washington, D.C., SORO, 1962), 147.
98. Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?"
99. Schelling, "Models of Segregation"; "Dynamic Models of Segregation."
100. Philip Green, "Science, Government and the Case of Rand: A Singular Pluralism," World Politics 2 (January 1968): 321.
101. Bruce L. Smith, The Rand Corporation: Case Study of a Nonprofit Advisory Corporation (Cambridge, Mass., 1966), 315.
102. Green, "Science, Government, and the Case of Rand," 317.
103. JCS, "Review of the Current World Situation and Ability of the Forces Being Maintained to Meet United States Commitments," Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951 (hereafter: FRUS), vol. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1979), 61-75.
104. Frank Ninkovich, Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 1994), in particular, 186-202.
105. Samuel Klausner and Victor Lidz (eds.), The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia, 1986).
106. Henry Loomis/Psychological Strategy Board (hereafter: PSB), "Report on Social Science Research in Cold War Operations" (April 1952), Harry S. Truman Papers (hereafter: HST), PSB files, box 1.
107. Presidential Directive in FRUS, 1951, vol. 1, 58-59.
108. Scott Lucas, "The Psychological Strategy Board and American Ideology, 1951-1953," International History Review 18 (February 1996): 279-302.
109. Edward P. Lilly, "The Psychological Strategy Board and its Predecessors: Foreign Policy Coordination, 1938-1953," in Gaetano Vincitorio (ed.), Studies in Modern History (New York, 1968), 369.
110. PSB, "Doctrinal Warfare" (September 16, 1952), 14, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library (hereafter: DDE), Operations Coordination Board Secretariat Files (hereafter: OCB), box 2.
111. Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70
112. Don K. Price, The Scientific Estate (Harvard, 1965).
113. Allan Needell, " 'Truth is Our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17:3 (Summer 1993): 400.
114. PSB, "Inter-Agency Coordination of Social Science Research; Memorandum of Conversation" (August 4, 1952)
115. PSB, "Memorandum of Conversation with Wilbur Schramm, Dean School of Communications, University of Illinois" (July 18, 1952)
116. Gene Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership: Social Science and the Federal Government in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1969), 138-39.
117. Smith, The Rand Corporation, 64.
118. Stephen Waring, "Cold Calculus: The Cold War and Operations Research," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995): 39.
119. Fred Kaplan, TheWizards of Armageddon (Stanford, Calif., 1983), 74-84.
120. Michael Bernstein, "American Economics and the National Security State, 1941-1953," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995): 8-27.
121. Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 76.
122. Herbert Goldhamer and Hans Speier, "Some Observations on Political Gaming," World Politics 12 (October 1959): 71-83.
123. For some of the reigning differences concerning the causes of war among behavioral scientists, see Hadley Cantril (ed.), Tensions that Cause War (Urbana, Ill., 1950).
124. For contemporary criticism of behavioral analysis of war, see Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War: Theoretical Analyses (New York, 1954), 16-79.
125. Herbert Goldhamer, "The Psychological Analysis of War," Sociological Review 26 (July 1934): 249-67. Goldhamer, at the time a graduate student at the University of Chicago, would later become a central figure in Rand's social science division. See chapter 6 on the armistice negotiations in Korea.
126. Paul Kecskemeti, Strategic Surrender: The Politics of Victory and Defeat (Stanford, Calif., 1958).
127. On the debate surrounding the book, see James E. King, "Strategic Surrender: The Senate Debate and the Book," World Politics 11 (April 1959): 418-29.
128. U.S. House of Representatives, "Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Tax Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations," Report No. 2681, December 16, 1954, 83rd Cong., 2nd sess., 60.
129. See two of Kahn's most provocative publications: On Thermonuclear War (Princeton, 1960)
130. Thinking about the Unthinkable (New York, 1962).
131. Hans Speier and Margaret Otis, "German Radio Propaganda to France During the Battle of France," in Daniel Lerner (ed.), Propaganda in War and Crisis (New York, 1951), 210.
132. Paul Lazarsfeld and Frank Stanton (eds.), Radio Research, 1942-1943 (New York, 1944).
133. Raymond Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works (Cambridge, Mass., 1956)
134. Alex Inkeles and Raymond Bauer, The Soviet Citizen: Daily Life in a Totalitarian State (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
135. Raymond Bowers, "The Military Establishment," in Paul Lazarsfeld, William Sewell, and Harold Wilensky (eds.), The Uses of Sociology (New York, 1967), 239-40.
136. Lyons, The Uneasy Partnership, 144-45.
137. Harvey Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, 1990), 63-64.
138. Larson, "Deterrence Theory and the Cold War," 86-109.
139. Carroll Shartle, "Selected Department of Defense Programs in the Social Sciences," in "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited-War Mission," 322-43.
140. Stephen Waring, "Cold Calculus, The Cold War and Operations Research," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995): 28-51.
141. Leo Bogart (ed.), Social Research and the Desegregation of the U.S. Army (Chicago, 1969), 20.
142. Smith, The Rand Corporation, 271-72;
143. Paul Dickson, Think Tanks (New York, 1972), 149-72.
144. Dickson, Think Tanks, 135.
145. IDA, Annual Report, 1966 (Arlington, Va., 1966), 15.
146. Needell, " 'Truth is our Weapon'," 418-19.
147. Dorothy Nelkin, The University and Military Research: Moral Politics at M.I.T. (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972).
148. Barry Katz, Foreign Intelligence: Research and Analysis in the Office of Strategic Studies (Cambridge, Mass., 1989)
149. Ron Robin, The Barbed Wire College: Reeducating German POWS in the United States During World War II (Princeton, 1995).
150. Henry Loomis, "Report on Social Science Research in Cold War Operations," 19-20.
151. Emily L. Ehle, "Leadership Selection in Urban Locality Areas," Public Opinion Quarterly 14 (Summer 1950): 262-84.
152. Bernard Brodie, "Strategy as a Science," World Politics 1 (July 1949): 467-88.
153. Karl Erik Rosengren, Peter Arvidson, and Dahn Sturesson, "The Barseback 'Panic': A Radio Programme as a Negative Summary Event," Acta Sociologica 18: 4 (1975): 303-21.
154. "The Invasion from Mars," in Shearon Lowery and Melvin DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication Research (New York, 1988), 31-54
155. Hadley Cantril, Hazel Gaudet, and Herta Herzog, The Invasion from Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic (Princeton, 1940).
156. Gordon Allport, "The Trend in Motivational Theory," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 23 (January 1953): 107.
157. American Journal of Sociology 45 (November 1939), dedicated to the impact of Freud on American sociology in particular and American social thought in general.
158. Samuel Stouffer et al., TAS, vol. 1 (Princeton, 1949), 431.
159. Frederic Thrasher, The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago (Chicago, 1927).
160. John Landesco, Organized Crime in Chicago (Chicago, 1929);
161. Clifford Shaw, The Natural History of a Delinquent Career (Chicago, 1931).
162. Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Experiments (Cambridge, U.K., 1991).
163. Eugene Cass and Frederick Zimmer, Man and Work in Society: A Report on the Symposium Held on the Occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Original Hawthorne Studies (New York, 1975).
164. TAS, vol. 2, 149.
165. Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration of the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 280-315.
166. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration."
167. Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet, The People's Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign (New York, 1948).
168. Bernard Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Election (Chicago, 1954), 309.
169. Edward Shils, "Some Academics, Mainly in Chicago," American Scholar 50 (1980-1981): 193.
170. Walter Lincoln Whittlesey's review of World Politics and Personal Insecurity in American Political Science Review 29 (June 19, 1935): 500-501.
171. Everett C. Hughes review of World Politics and Personal Insecurity in American Journal of Sociology 41 (November 1935): 400-401.
172. Mark C. Smith, Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate Over Objectivity and Purpose, 1918-1941 (Durham, N.C., 1994), 243.
173. Gabriel Almond, "Harold D. Lasswell: A Biographical Memoir," in Almond, A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science (Newbury Park, Calif., 1990), 290-308;
174. Daniel Lerner, "Harold D. Lasswell," in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 18 (New York, 1979), 405-10.
175. Rodney Muth, Mary Finley, and Marcia Muth, Harold D. Lasswell: An Annotated Bibliography (New Haven, Conn., 1989).
176. Harold Lasswell, "The Psychology of Hitlerism," Political Quarterly 4(July-September 1933): 373-78.
177. Harold Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (Chicago, 1930, 1977), 177.
178. Arnold Rogow, "Towards a Psychiatry of Politics," in Arnold Rogow (ed.), Politics, Personality, and Social Science in the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honor of Harold D. Lasswell (Chicago, 1969), 128.
179. Harold Lasswell, "The Study of the Ill as a Method of Research into Political Personalities," American Political Science Review 23 (1929): 996-1001.
180. Harold Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How (New York, 1936, 1950), 235.
181. Harold Lasswell, World Politics and Personal Insecurity (New York, 1965), 3.
182. Harold Lasswell, "Propaganda," in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York, 1933), 521.
183. Harold Lasswell and Dorothy Blumenstock, World Revolutionary Propaganda: A Chicago Study (New York, 1939).
184. Smith, Social Science in the Crucible, 246.
185. Harold Lasswell, Nathan Leites, and associates, Language of Politics: Studies in Quantitative Semantics (New York, 1949), v.
186. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995).
187. Arjun Appadurai, "Number in the Colonial Imagination," in Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer (eds.), Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia, 1993), 315-39.
188. Shawn Parry-Giles, "Propaganda, Effect, and the ColdWar: Gauging the Status of America's 'War of Words'," Political Communication 11 (1994): 203-13.
189. Morris Janowitz, "Content Analysis and the Study of the 'Symbolic Environment'," in Rogow, Politics, Personality, and Social Science, 155-70.
190. Deborah Welch Larson, "Deterrence Theory and the Cold War," Radical History Review 63 (Fall 1995): 98-99.
191. James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York, 1991), 138.
192. Porter, Trust in Numbers, 8. Emphasis is my own.
193. Everett M. Rogers, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Study (New York, 1994), 1-32, 445-95;
194. Emile McAnany, "Wilbur Schramm, 1907-1987: Roots of the Past, Seeds of the Present," Journal of Communication 38 (Autumn 1988): 109-22.
195. HRRI, "A Preliminary Study of the Impact of Communism on Korea" (Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, 1951), iii (hereafter: PSICK).
196. John Riley, Wilbur Schramm, and Frederick Williams, "Flight from Communism: A Report on Korean Refugees," Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (Summer 1951): 276.
197. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947-1950 (Princeton, 1990), 628.
198. Alex Inkeles, "Understanding a Foreign Society: A Sociologist's View," World Politics 3 (January 1951): 251.
199. Wilbur Schramm and John Riley, "Communication in the Sovietized State as Demonstrated in Korea," American Sociological Review 16 (December 1951): 758.
200. For an informative summary of current communication theory in the 1940s and 1950s, see Joseph Klapper, "What We Know About the Effects of Mass Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (Winter 1957-58): 453-74.
201. See also Steven Chaffee and John Hochheimer, "The Beginnings of Political Communication Research in the United States: Origins of the 'Limited Effects' Model," in Everett Rogers and Francis Balle (eds.), The Media Revolution in America and Western Europe (Norwood, N.J., 1985), 267-96;
202. Todd Gitlin, "Media Sociology: The Dominant Paradigm," Theory and Society 6 (1978): 205-53.
203. Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet, The People's Choice (New York, 1948);
204. Bernard Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago, 1954).
205. Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication: (Glencoe, Ill., 1955);
206. Elihu Katz, "The Two Step Flow of Communication; An Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 61-78.
207. Paul Lazarsfeld and Herbert Menzel, "Mass Media and Personal Influence," in Wilbur Schramm (ed.), The Science of Human Communication (New York, 1963), 97.
208. Gabriel Weimann The Influentials: PeopleWho Influence People (New York, 1994) for an analysis of the origins and developments of the concept of opinion leaders.
209. Schramm and Riley, "Communication in the Sovietized State," 758.
210. Schramm and Riley, "Communication in the Sovietized State," 758;
211. PSICK, 11, 59-60.
212. Carl Hovland et al., Experiments on Mass Communication (Princeton, 1949).
213. Theodore H. E. Chen, "Preface: The Chinese Documents Project," in Henry Wei, "State and Government in Communist China: Their Ideological Basis and Statutory Pattern in the Spring of 1953" (HRRI, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala., 1955), viii.
214. Raymond Bauer and David Gleicher, "Word-of-Mouth Communication in the Soviet Union" (HRRI, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala., 1953), v.
215. Riley, Schramm, and Williams, "Flight from Communism," 274-86;
216. Schramm and Riley, "Communication in the Sovietized State," 757-66.
217. Charles T. O'Connell, "Social Structure and Science: Soviet Studies at Harvard" (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1990).
218. Clyde Kluckhohn, "Foreword," in Alex Inkeles, Public Opinion in Soviet Russia: A Study in Mass Persuasion (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), vii.
219. John Riley, Frank Cantwell, and Katherine Ruttiger, "Some Observations on the Social Effects of Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 13 (Summer 1949): 223-34;
220. Matilda White Riley and John W. Riley, "A Sociological Approach to Communication Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (Fall 1951): 445-55.
221. On Riley's continuing association with the behavioral military complex following his move to the private sector, see William Lybrand (ed.), "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited-War Mission and Social Science Research" (Washington, D.C., Special Operations Research Office, 1962), 151-59.
222. See, for example, Wilbur Schramm, Jack Lyle, and Edwin Parker, Television in the Lives of Our Children (Stanford, Calif., 1961).
223. Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (Glencoe, Ill., 1958).
224. Everett Rogers, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach (New York, 1994), 471.
225. Emile McAnany, "Wilbur Schramm," 109.
226. Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960 (New York, 1994), 107-17.
227. Steven Chaffee (ed.), "The Contributions of Wilbur Schramm to Mass Communication Research," Journalism Monographs 36 (October 1974): 1-8.
228. Jack McLeod and Jay Blumler, "The Macrosocial Level of Communication Science," in Charles Berger and Steven Chaffee (eds.), Handbook of Communication Science (Newbury Park, Calif., 1987), 286.
229. Todd Gitlin, "Media Sociology: The Dominant Paradigm," Theory and Society 6 (1978): 205-53.
230. Eunice Cooper and Marie Jahoda, "The Evasion of Propaganda: How Prejudiced People Respond to Anti-Prejudice Propaganda," originally published in Journal of Psychology 23 (1947): 15-25.
231. Irving Janis and Seymour Feshbach, "Effects of Fear Arousing Communications," originally published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48 (1953): 78-92.
232. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, vol. 2: Years of Trial and Hope (New York, 1956), 377-95;
233. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department (London, 1969), 402-13.
234. Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton, 1985).
235. Acheson, Present at the Creation, 405.
236. Truman, Memoirs, 379.
237. Edward Shils, "The End of Ideology?" Encounter 5 (November 1955): 52-58.For contemporary expositions of the "end of ideology" debate
238. Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford, Calif., 1959);
239. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (Glencoe, Ill. 1960);
240. Chaim Waxman (ed.), The End of Ideology Debate (New York, 1968).
241. David Riesman, "Some Observations on the Limits of Totalitarian Power," Antioch Review 12 (June 1952): 155-68.
242. Harold Lasswell, "Political and Psychological Warfare," in Daniel Lerner (ed.), Propaganda in War and Crisis: Materials for American Policy (New York, 1951), 264.
243. Gisela J. Hinkle, "Sociology and Psychoanalysis," in Howard Becker (ed.), Modern Sociological Theory in Continuity and Change (New York, 1957), 574-606.
244. Martin Herz, "Some Psychological Lessons from Leaflet Propaganda in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 13: 3 (1949): 471-86.
245. Paul Linebarger, Psychological Warfare (Washington, D.C., 1954), 7.
246. Hans Speier, "PsychologicalWarfare Reconsidered," in Daniel Lerner and Harold Lasswell (eds.), The Policy Sciences (Stanford, Calif., 1951), 259.
247. Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (Summer 1948): 280-315.
248. Murray Gurfein and Morris Janowitz, "Trends in Wehrmacht Morale," Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (Spring 1946): 78-84;
249. Donald McGranahan and Morris Janowitz, "Studies of German Youth," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 41 (January 1946): 3-14.
250. W. Victor Madej, "Effectiveness and Cohesion of the German Ground Forces in World War II," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 6 (Fall 1978): 242.
251. Shils and Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration," 280.
252. Omer Bartov, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York, 1991), 32.
253. See, for example, Roger Little, "Buddy Relations and Combat Performance," in Morris Janowitz (ed.), The New Military (New York, 1964);
254. Charles Moskos, The American Enlisted Man (New York, 1970);
255. Paul Savage and Richard Gabriel, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the American Army," Armed Forces and Society 2 (May 1976): 340-76;
256. Stanford Gregory, "Toward a Situated Description of Cohesion and Disintegration in the American Army," ibid., 3 (May 1977): 463-69;
257. John Faris, "An Alternative Perspective to Savage and Gabriel," ibid., 457-62;
258. Anthony Wermuth, "A Critique of Savage and Gabriel," ibid., 481-90.
259. Savage and Gabriel, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the American Army," 345.
260. See also William Henderson, Why the Vietcong Fought: A Study of Motivation and Control in a Modern Army in Combat (Westport, Conn., 1979), xv-xxix.
261. Melvin DeFleur and Otto Larsen, The Flow of Information: An Experiment in Mass Communication (1948).
262. Shearon Lowery and Melvin DeFleur, "Project Revere: The Quality and Pathways of Message Diffusion," in Milestones in Communication Research (New York, 1983), 204-32.
263. "Psychological Warfare in Korea," Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (Spring 1951): 65-75.
264. Wilbur Schramm, "FEC PsychologicalWarfare Operations: Radio; ORO Technical Report T-20 (FEC)" (Washington, D.C., 1952).
265. General Headquarters, FEC, Military Intelligence Section, PsychologicalWarfare Branch, "Plans for Psychological Warfare Against Chinese Target Groups" (December 8, 1950), Douglas MacArthur Archives, Norfolk, Va. (hereafter: MAC), RG 6, box 4.
266. Donald McGranahan, "U.S. Psychological Warfare Policy," Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (Fall 1946): 446-50.
267. "Interview with Brigadier General Robert A. McClure," U.S. News and World Report (January 2, 1953), 60-69.
268. Gurfein and Janowitz, "Trends in Wehrmacht Morale."
269. ORO, "Testing Procedures, Psychological Warfare, Printed Media; Phase 1: Group Interview Method, ORO-T-19 (FEC)" (April 17, 1952), 53.
270. OCPW to Psychological Warfare Center, Fort Bragg, "Psychological Warfare Operational Deficiencies in the Korean Campaign" (November 10, 1953)
271. HumRRO, "Psychological Warfare Research: A Long-Range Program; Part One: Essential Background Information, HumRRO-SR-2 (March 1953)," 29.
272. Paul Linebarger, "Immediate Improvement of Theater-level PsychologicalWarfare in the Far East; ORO Technical Memorandum ORO-T-11 (June 7, 1951)," 6.
273. Carl Berger, "An Introduction toWartime Leaflets" (SORO,Washington, D.C., 1959);
274. John Riley and Leonard Cottrell, "Research for Psychological Warfare," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (Spring 1957): 147-58.
275. For a summary of these studies, see Alexander George, "Psychological Aspects of Tactical Operations (Korea), Rand Corporation Memorandum RM-3110-PR" (Santa Monica, April 1962).
276. KAC, 3.
277. Walter Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front (Washington, D.C., 1966), 19-20.
278. Rand Corporation, "Western Elite Studies" (December 1948), National Archives, Record Group 319, Korean Armistice Negotiations (hereafter: RG 319), box 698.
279. Morris Janowitz, "The Systematic Analysis of Political Biography," World Politics 6 (April 1954): 405.
280. Harold Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (Chicago, 1930).
281. Lasswell's "The Study of the Ill as a Method of Research into Political Personalities," American Political Science Review 23 (November 1929): 996-1001.
282. Lasswell, "The Study of the Ill," 1001.
283. Clyde and Florence Kluckhohn, "American Culture: Generalized Orientations and Class Patterns," in Lymon Bryson (ed.), Seventh Conference of Philosophy, Science and Religion and Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life: Conflicts of Power in Modern Culture (New York, 1946), 106-28.
284. Margaret Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry (New York, 1943)101-7.
285. Ruth Benedict, Rumanian Culture and Behavior (New York, 1943), 54.
286. Geoffrey Gorer, "Themes in Japanese Culture," Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 5 (1943): 106-24;
287. Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (Boston, 1946).
288. Roger Money-Kyrle, Psychoanalysis and Politics: A Contribution to the Psychology of Politics and Morals (New York, 1951).
289. See also Richard Brickner, Is Germany Incurable? (Philadelphia, 1943);
290. "What shall We Do With Germany? A Panel Discussion of Is Germany Incurable?" Saturday Review of Literature 24 (May 29, 1943), 4-10.
291. Henry Dicks, "Personality Traits and National Socialist Ideology: A War-time Study of German Prisoners of War," Human Relations 3 (1950): 111-54.
292. Henry Dicks, "Observations on Contemporary Russian Behavior," Human Relations 5 (1952): 137.
293. Dinko Tomasic, The Impact of Russian Culture on Soviet Communism (Glencoe, Ill., 1953).
294. Geoffrey Gorer, "Some Aspects of the Psychology of the People of Great Russia," The American Slavic and East European Review 8 (October 1949): 155-66.
295. Irving Goldman, "Psychiatric Interpretation of Russian History: A Reply to Geoffrey Gorer," 9 (October 1950): 151-62.
296. Edward Shils, "Authoritarianism: 'Right and Left'," in Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda (eds.), Studies in the Scope and Methods of 'The Authoritarian Personality' (Glencoe, Ill., 1954), 28.
297. Edward Shils, "The End of Ideology?" Encounters 5 (1955): 52-58.
298. Raymond Bauer, "The Psycho-Cultural Approach to Soviet Studies,"World Politics 7 (October 1954): 123.
299. Mead, Soviet Attitudes Toward Authority, 11-12.
300. Elizabeth Wirth Marvick (ed.), Psychopolitical Analysis: Selected Writings of Nathan Leites (New York, 1977).
301. Hans Speier, Appeasement: The Last Hopkins Mission to Moscow (May-June 1945);
302. Western Elite Studies, case no. 1 (December 1, 1948).
303. Paul Kecskemeti and Nathan Leites, "Some Psychological Hypotheses on Nazi Germany" (Library of Congress, Experimental Division for the Study of Wartime Communication, Doc. No. 60, July 30, 1945).
304. This study was later published piecemeal in the Journal of Social Psychology 26 (1947): 141-83;
305. 27 (1948): 91-117,241-70
306. 28 (1948): 141-64.
307. Nathan Leites, A Study of Bolshevism (Glencoe, 111., 1953), 21.
308. Nathan Leites, The Operational Code of the Politburo (New York, 1951), xii.
309. Leites, Study of Bolshevism, 403.
310. Nathan Leites and David Nelson Rowe, "Choice in China," World Politics 1 (1948-49): 277-307.
311. Daniel Bell, "The Study of Man: Bolshevik Man, His Motivations; a Psychoanalytic Key to Communist Behavior," Commentary 19 (1955): 180.
312. Leites, The Operational Code, xii.
313. This interpretation is from Alexander George, "The 'Operational Code': A Neglected Approach to the Study of Political Leaders and Decision-Making," International Studies Quarterly 13 (June 1969): 196.
314. This description of Joy belongs to Ernest R. May in his introduction to KAC, xxiv.
315. The Advisor (New York, 1978).
316. KAC, 136.
317. Joy, Negotiating While Fighting, 64.
318. Leites, The Operational Code, 13.
319. Joy, How Communists Negotiate, 170-71.
320. Meyers and Bradbury, "The Political Behavior of Korean and Chinese Prisoners of War," 282.
321. Alexander L. George, The Chinese Communist Army in Action: The Korean War and its Aftermath (New York, 1967).
322. Toshio Nishi, Unconditional Democracy: Education and Politics in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952 (Stanford, Calif, 1992), 2.
323. Paula Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York, 1989), 26.
324. CIE, FOD, "Report on Results of Achievement Testing, Korean Instructional Unit 17" (March 28, 1952).
325. CIE, FOD, "Preliminary Report on Results on Achievement Test on Instructional Units 1-16" (January 18, 1952). RG 333, box 1.
326. CIE, "Interim Report on Progress of Educational Program for POWs," 13; RG 319, Army Operations, Decimal files 1952, 383.6.
327. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War: The Roaring of the Cataract (Princeton, 1990), 104-5.
328. General Headquarters, FEC, "Leftist Infiltration into SCAP" (February 27, 1947), Douglas MacArthur Archives (hereafter: MAC), Record Group 23, Charles A. Willoughby Papers, box 18.
329. Jones, The Years of MacArthur, 288.
330. Kenneth Hansen, Heroes Behind Barbed Wire (Princeton, 1957), 47.
331. Christianity and CIE in US Army, FEC, Psychological Warfare Section, Research, Analysis and Evaluation Section, "Interviews With 24 Korean POW Leaders: APO 500" (May 1954).
332. Walter Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front (Washington, D.C., 1966), 169.
333. "Memorandum of Conversation by the Deputy Assistant, Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Johnson)" (February 25, 1952), FRUS, 1952-1954, part 1, Korea, vol. xv, 58-59.
334. On CIE agitation against repatriation, see Hansen, Heroes Behind Barbed Wire (Princeton, 1957), 1-22.
335. A concise, accurate summary of the Dodd incident appears in Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, 243-54.
336. Monta Osborne to Lieutenant Colonel Robert O'Brien (June 6, 1952).
337. CIE UN COM, "Report of the Evaluation Phase of the Program of Orientation and Education for Korean and Chinese Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees" (December 1952), 27, 30, RG 338, box 32.
338. See, for example, Robert Alden, "X-Ray of the Communist Mind," New York Times Magazine (December 20, 1953), 12, 34-37.
339. H. H. Hubben, "American Prisoners of War in Korea: A Second Look at the 'Something New in History' Theme," American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 3-19
340. Albert Biderman, March to Calumny: The Story of American POWs in the Korean War (New York, 1963).
341. Kinkead, Why They Collaborated? 15.
342. William E. Mayer, "Why Did So Many CI Captives Cave In?" U.S. News and World Report (February 24, 1956), 65-72.
343. See also William Ulman, "The GIs Who Fell for the Reds," Saturday Evening Post 226 (March 6, 1954), 17-19, 64-67.
344. Ralf Dahrendorf, "Democracy Without Liberty: An Essay on the Politics of Other-Directed Man," in Seymour Martin Lipset and Leo Lowenthal (eds.), Culture and Social Character: The Work of David Riesman Reviewed (Glencoe, 111., 1962), 192-95.
345. On the changing image of the American POW, see Robert Doyle, Voices from Captivity: Interpreting the American POW Narratives (Lawrence, 1994).
346. On draft deferment for college youth during the Korean War, see Thomas Ma-honey, "Lessons from Korea," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 276 (July 1951): 45-46.
347. Julius Segal, "Factors Related to the Collaboration and Resistance Behavior of U.S. Army PWs in Korea" (HumRRO Technical Report 33, December 1956), 45-47.
348. Leo Bogart (ed.), Social Research and Desegregation of the U.S. Army (Chicago, 1967), 50-52.
349. See exchange of correspondence between families of POWs and the White House in Official File, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library (hereafter: HST), box 1351.
350. Edward Hunter, Brainwashing in Red China (New York, 1951).
351. Henry P. Laughlin, "Brainwashing; a Supplemental Report" (June 10, 1953), 3, Psychological Strategy Board Files, HST, box 32.
352. Joost Meerloo, The Rape of the Mind: The Psychology of Thought Control, Men-ticide, and Brainwashing (Cleveland, 1956), 49.
353. George Winokur, " 'Brainwashing'-A Social Phenomenon of Our Time," Human Organization 13:4 (Winter 1965): 17.
354. Edgar Schien, "Brainwashing and Totalitarianization in Modern Society," World Politics 11 (April 1959): 430-41.
355. Albert Biderman, "The Image of 'Brainwashing,' " Public Opinion Quarterly 26 (Winter 1962): 547-63.
356. Charles Young, "Missing Action: POW films, Brainwashing, and the Korean War, 1954-1968," Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 18 (March 1988): 49-74.
357. Michael Rogin, Ronald Reagan; the Movie (Berkeley, Calif, 1987), 267.
358. Raymond Bauer, "Brainwashing: Psychology or Demonology?" Journal of So-ciallssues 13:3 (1957): 41. The entire edition of the journal is devoted to the debunking of brainwashing.
359. "Statement: To Set Straight the Korean POW Episode," Harvard Business Review 40 (November-December, 1962): 94-95.
360. Segal, "Factors Related to the Collaboration and Resistance Behavior," 17. For additional HumRRO material, see Julius Segal, "Correlates of Collaboration and Resistance Behavior Among U.S. Army POWs in Korea," Journal of Social Issues 13:3 (1957): 31-47.
361. Schein, "The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War," 149-72.
362. Schein, "Distinguishing Characteristics of Collaborators," 197-201.
363. Segal, "Factors Related to the Collaboration and Resistance," 66.
364. Biderman, March to Calumny, 25.
365. HumRRO, "Analysis of Interrogation Data from 'Little Switch' " (July 1953), RG 319, box 407.
366. Letter from Edgar Schein to Faith Gleicher-Boninger and Ron Robin (December 1, 1997).
367. Edgar Schein, "The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War: A Study of Attempted 'Brainwashing,' " Psychiatry 29 (May 1956): 167-68.
368. Bogart, Social Research, 50-52.
369. Albert Mayer and Thomas Hoult, "Social Stratification and Combat Survival," Social Forces 34 (1955): 155-59.
370. Fred Wacker, "Culture, Prejudice, and an American Dilemma," Phylon 42:3 (1981): 255-61.
371. Schein, "Distinguishing Characteristics of Collaborators and Resisters," 197- 201.
372. Segal, "Correlates of Collaboration and Resistance."
373. Schein, "The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War".
374. Schein, "Reaction Patterns to Severe, Chronic Stress," 28.
375. Biderman, "Effects of Communist Indoctrination Attempts," 310.
376. David Hollinger, "Science as a Weapon in Kulturkaempfe in the United States During and After World War II," Isis 86 (1995): 442.
377. David Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Intellectual History (Princeton, 1996), ix.
378. On the high percentage of Jews in fields such as psychology and sociology and, by contrast, their underrepresentation in the arts and humanities, see Stephen Steinberg, The Academic Melting Pot (New York, 1974), 117-30.
379. Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture, x.
380. Bernard Berleson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee, Voting (Chicago, 1954), 311-23.
381. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Three Decades of the Radical Right," in Daniel Bell (ed.), The Radical Right (New York, 1955), 391-407.
382. Will Herberg, "McCarthy and Hitler: A Delusive Parallel," New Republic 131 (August 23, 1954), 13-15.
383. George H. Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (New York, 1945), 42.
384. Bernard Iddings Bell, Crisis in Education (New York, 1949), 124.
385. Howard Mumford Jones, One Creat Society: Humane Learning in the United States (New York, 1959), 44-55.
386. United States Department of Defense, POW: The Fight Continues After the Battle; the Report of the Secretary of Defense's Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War (Washington, D.C., 1955), 20-21.
387. William Lybrand, "Foreword," in idem (ed.), "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited War Mission and Social Science Research" (Washington, D.C., SORO, June 1962), ix.
388. General Clyde D. Eddleman, "Limited-War and International Conflict," in "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited War Mission," 25-47.
389. Brigadier General Richard W. Stilwell, "Invited Address," in "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited War Mission," 104-14.
390. Larry Cable, Conflict of Myths: The Development of American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and Vietnam War (New York, 1986), 115.
391. Roger Hilsman, "Internal War: The New Communist Threat," in Lieutenant Colonel T. N. Greene (ed.), The Guerrilla and How to Fight Him (New York, 1966), 22-36.
392. Klaus Knorr, Opening Remarks to Session on "Aspects of Warfare in Developing Nations," in "Symposium Proceedings: The U.S. Army's Limited War Mission," 250.
393. Hans Speier, "Revolutionary War: P-3445" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1962), 28.
394. Edward Banfield, "American Foreign Aid Doctrines," in Carl Friedrich and Seymour Harris (eds.), Public Policy: A Yearbook of the Graduate School of Public Policy (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), 44-95.
395. John Donnell, Guy Pauker, and Joseph Zasloff, "Vietcong Motivation and Morale in 1964; A Preliminary Account, RM-4507/3-ISA" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1965)
396. William Henderson, Why the Vietcong Fought: A Study of Motivation and Control in a Modern Army in Combat (Westport, Conn., 1979).
397. Nathan Leites, "The Vietcong Style of Politics RM-5487-l-ISA/ARPA" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1969).
398. John Donnell, "Vietcong Recruitment: Why and How Men Join, RM-5486-1-ISA/ARPA" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1967), 31.
399. Landau, "The Rand Papers," 36.
400. R. Michael Pearce, "The Insurgent Environment: RM-5533-1-ARPA" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1969).
401. Mitchell, "Inequality and Insurgency," 437.
402. Wolf, "Insurgency and Counterinsurgency," 229.
403. Wolf and Leites, Rebellion and Authority, 56.
404. Richard Shultz, "Breaking the Will of the Enemy During the Vietnam War: The Operalization of the Cost-Benefit Model," Journal of Peace Research 15 (1978): 110.
405. Landau, "The Rand Papers," 36.
406. Thomas Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven, 1966), v, 2-3.
407. Samuel Huntington, "The Bases of Accommodation," Foreign Affairs 46 (July 1968): 642-56.
408. George Carver, "The Faceless Vietcong," Foreign Affairs 44 (April 1966): 371.
409. See, for example, Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (Cambridge, Mass., 1966)
410. Eric Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979)
411. Samuel Popkin, The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley, Calif, 1979).
412. Kenneth Boulding, review ofRebellion and Authority in The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 392 (November 1970): 184-85.
413. Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority, vi.
414. Frank Armbruster, Raymond Gastil, Herman Kahn, William Pfaff, and Edward Stillman, Can We Win in Vietnam? (New York, 1968).
415. Herbert Goldhamer, Andrew Marshall, and Nathan Leites, "The Deterrence and Strategy of Total War, 1959-1961: A Method of Analysis; RM-2301" (Santa Monica, Calif, April 1959).
416. Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority, 17-18.
417. Albert Biderman and Fred Davis, "A Use of Aircraft as a Counter-Riot Measure: HRRI Research Memorandum No. 17" (Maxwell Airforce Base, 1953).
418. Gurr and Ruttenberg, Cross-National Studies, 6, 17, 78.
419. Tedd Gurr, Why Men Rebel? (Princeton, 1970).
420. Carl Rosenthal, "Phases of Civilian Disturbances: Characteristics and Problems" (CRESS, Washington, D.C., June 1969)
421. Guy Pauker, "Black Nationalism and Prospects for Violence in the Ghetto" (Rand, June 1969)
422. Brian Jenkins, "The Five Stages of Urban Guerrilla Warfare: Challenges in the 1970s; RP-4670" (Santa Monica, Calif, 1971).
423. Tracy Tullis, "A Vietnam at Home: Policing the Ghettos in the Counterin-surgency Era" (Ph.D. diss., University of New York, 1999)
424. Irving Louis Horowitz, "The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot," in Horowitz, The Rise and Fall, 30-31.
425. Robert Nisbet, "Project Camelot," in Philip Rieff, On Intellectuals: Theoretical Studies, Case Studies (New York, 1969), 283-313.
426. Testimony by Gabriel Almond in U.S. Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Government Research, "Hearings on Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research," June-July 1966, 89th Cong., 2nd sess., 110.
427. Testimony by Gabriel Almond, 115.
428. See, for example, Coleman's most prominent publications: Adolescent Society (Glencoe, 111., 1961), audi Introduction to Mathematical Sociology (New York, 1964).
429. Coleman's earliest publication in this new field was "Current Political Movement in Africa," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 298 (March 1955): 95-105.
430. Gabriel Almond and James Coleman (eds.), The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1966).
431. Jean Lipman-Blumen, "Jessie Bernard," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 15 (New York, 1973), 49.
432. Jessie Bernard, American Community Behavior (New York, 1949, 1962)
433. Jessie Bernard, "Some Current Conceptualizations in the Field of Conflict," American Journal of Sociology 70 (June 1965): 442-54.
434. Robert Bannister, Jessie Bernard: The Making of a Feminist (New Brunswick, 1998).
435. Jessie Bernard, "Where is the Modern Sociology of Conflict?" American Journal of Sociology 51 (July 1950): 11-16.
436. Preface, Academic Women (New York, rev. ed., 1974), 27.
437. Jessie Bernard, "Conflict as Research and Research as Conflict," in Horowitz, The Rise and Fall, 135.
438. Horowitz, "The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot," 8.
439. Testimony of Alex Inkeles in "Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research," 181.
440. Bernard, "Conflict as Research and Research as Conflict," 131, 138.
441. Talcott Parsons, "Editor's Column," The American Sociologist 12 (February 1967): 62-64.
442. Daniel Lerner, "Introduction," in Lerner (ed.), The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences (New York, 1959).
443. Samuel Huntington, "Social Science and Vietnam," Asian Survey 7 (August 1967): 503-4.
444. Bernard, "Conflict as Research and Research as Conflict," 146.
445. Neil Smelser, Theory of Collective Behavior (New York, 1962).
446. Smelser, Theory of Collective Behavior, 79-85, 268.
447. Sidney Hook, "Violence," in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 15, 264-67, cited in Smelser, Theory of Collective Behavior, 261.
448. Brief Description of Project Camelot (June 15, 1965), in Horowitz, The Rise and Fall, 60.
449. Samuel Klausner (ed.), The Study of Total Societies (New York, 1967).
450. James S. Coleman, "The Political Systems of the Developing Areas," in Gabriel Almond and James Coleman, The Politics of the Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960), 536.
451. Coleman, "Political Systems," 538.
452. Amitai Etzioni and Fredric Du Bow, "Some Workpoints for a Macrosociology," in Klausner, The Study of Total Societies, 147-62.
453. Harry Eckstein (ed.), Internal War: Problems and Approaches (New York, 1964).
454. Lucien Pye, "Political Modernization: Gaps Between Theory and Reality," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 442 (March 1979): 34.
455. Horowitz, The Rise and Fall, 47.
456. Joseph Gusfeld, "Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change," American Journal of Sociology 72 (January, 1967): 358.
457. Samuel Huntington, "Political Development and Political Decay," World Politics 17 (April 1965): 386-91.
458. Samuel Huntington, "Political Modernization: America Vs. Europe," World Politics 18 (April 1966): 378-414.
459. Karl de Schweinitz, Industrialization and Democracy (New York, 1964)
460. Manning Nash, Primitive and Peasant Economic Systems (San Francisco, 1966).
461. Herbert Blumer, "Early Industrialization and the Laboring Class," Sociological Quarterly 1 (January 1960): 5-14.
462. Robert Rhodes, "The Disguised Conservatism in Evolutionary Development Theory," Science and Society 32 (Fall 1968): 385.
463. Andre Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York, 1967); Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, D.C., 1972).
464. Testimony of Alex Inkeles in "Federal Support of International Social Science and Behavioral Research," 192.
465. Robert Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York, 1969), 3-11.
466. Robert Nisbet, "Project Camelot and the Science of Man," in Horowitz, The Rise and Fall, 316.
467. Ali Marzui, "From Social Darwinism to Current Theories of Modernization: A Tradition of Analysis," World Politics 21 (1968): 69-83.
468. Bernard Brodie, "Strategy as a Science," World Politics 1 (July 1949): 467-87.
469. Robert Bannister, Jessie Bernard: The Making of a Feminist (New Brunswick, 1998), 136-41.
470. Bernard's review and the source of Bannister's error appears in Trans-Action 5 (January-February, 1968): 10-12.
471. The conspiracy-driven website: http://www.beyond-the-illu-sion.com/lists/iufo/1998/Aug/0191.html
472. Bruce Russett, "Who Pays for Defense?" American Political Science Review 63 (June 1969): 415
473. Emile Benoit, "Economics of Arms Control and Disarmament: The Monetary and Real Costs of National Defense," American Economic Review 58 (May 1968): 412.
474. Leonard Lewin, Report from Iron Mountain on the Possibility and Desirability of Peace (London, 1967), 66-70.
475. Kahan and Kissinger quoted in Leonard Lewin, "The Guest Word," New York Times (November 19, 1972).
476. Comments of Murray Weidenbaum, in Trans-Action 5 (January-February 1968): 16-17.
477. Herbert Gans, "War and Peace," Commentary 45 (February, 1968): 84.
478. Comments of Leonard J. Duhl, Trans-Action 5 (January-February 1968): 18.
479. Irving Louis Horowitz, "The Americanization of Conflict: Social Science 'Fiction' in Action," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 24 (March 1968): 24.
480. On the rhetorical devices employed in the report, see Ray Anderson, "The Rhetoric of the Report from Iron Mountain," Speech Monographs 37 (November 1970): 221-31.
481. Comments of Anatol Rapoport in Trans-Action 5 (January-February 1968): 10.
482. The studies mentioned in the report were Robert Ardrey, Territorial Imperative (New York, 1966) as well as the German-language original of Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression (New York, 1966).
483. An example of the condescending approach to the work of Lorenz and Audrey appears in the review article by Marion Levy, "Our Ever and Future Jungles," World Politics 22 (January 1970): 301-27.
484. H. L. Nieburg, "Uses of Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 7 (March 1963): 43-54.
485. Joseph Schneider, "Is War Necessary?" Journal of Conflict Resolution 4 (December 1959): 353-60.
486. See also the classic work of Lewis Coser, The Functions of Social Conflict (Glencoe, 111., 1956) and "Social Conflict and the Theory of Social Change," British Journal of Sociology 8 (1957): 197-207.
487. Hans Speier, Social Order and the Risks of War: Papers in Political Sociology (New York, 1952), 258.
488. David Wise and Thomas Ross, The Invisible Government (New York, 1964), 4.
489. Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation (New York, 1995), 23.
490. "Introduction," in Charles McCoy and John Playford (eds.), Apolitical Politics: A Critique of Behavioralism (New York, 1967), 3.
491. Edward Hall, The Silent Language (New York, 1959), 13.
492. V. O. Key, "The Politically Relevant in Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly 24 (1960): 54.
493. Francis Wormuth, "Matched-Dependent Behavioralism: The Cargo-Cult in Political Science," Western Political Quarterly 20 (December 1967): 809-40.
494. Maure Goldschmidt, "Democratic Theory and Contemporary Political Science," Western Political Quarterly 19, supplement (1966): 5-12.
495. Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (New York, 1957), 464-65.
496. Philip Green, Deadly Logic: The Theory of Nuclear Deterrence (Columbus, Ohio, 1966), 259.
497. Bill Readings, The University in Ruins (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), 3.
498. Jean-Francois Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester, U.K., 1984).
499. Robert Proctor, Value-Free Science? Purity and Power in Modern Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 163-272.