NIH electronic cigarette workshop: Developing a research agenda

Nicotine and Tobacco Research

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 259-269

  Walton, Kevin M ^a   Abrams, David B ^b,c   Bailey, William C ^d   Clark, David ^e   Connolly, Gregory N ^f   Djordjevic, Mirjana V ^g   Eissenberg, Thomas E ^h   Fiore, Michael C ⁱ   Goniewicz, Maciej L ^j   Haverkos, Lynne ^k   Hecht, Stephen S ^l   Henningfield, Jack E ^m,n   Hughes, John R ^o   Oncken, Cheryl A ^p   Postow, Lisa ^q   Rose, Jed E ^r   Wanke, Kay L ^s   Yang, Lucie ^t   Hatsukami, Dorothy K ^u  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE   (United States)

^b Schroeder Institute   (United States)

^c JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^d University of Alabama at Birmingham   (United States)

^e NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DENTAL AND CRANIOFACIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^f NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^h VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^j ROSWELL PARK CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^k EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^l UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^m PINNEY ASSOCIATES   (United States)

ⁿ JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^o UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^p UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

^q NATIONAL HEART LUNG AND BLOOD INSTITUTE   (United States)

^r DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^s NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH   (United States)

^t CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

^u UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE; FLAVORING AGENT; NICOTINE;

AEROSOL; BASIC RESEARCH; BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE; BIRTH WEIGHT; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL STUDY; COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS; DEVICES; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; GESTATIONAL AGE; HARM REDUCTION; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; MATERNAL SMOKING; NATIONAL HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ORGAN SYSTEMS; PASSIVE SMOKING; PREGNANT WOMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; RESEARCH; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; REVIEW; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; SMOKING REGULATION; THIRDHAND SMOKING; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ADVERSE EFFECTS; EDUCATION; ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE; METHODOLOGY; PROCEDURES; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; EDUCATION; ELECTRONIC CIGARETTES; HARM REDUCTION; HUMANS; NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH (U.S.); NICOTINE; RESEARCH DESIGN; SMOKING CESSATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84922441958     PISSN: 14622203     EISSN: 1469994X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntu214     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Abrams DB. Promise and peril of e-cigarettes can disruptive technology make cigarettes obsolete? JAMA. 2014;311(2): 135-136.
2. Herzog B. US tobacco trends: Disruptive innovation should drive outsized growth. www.ecigarette-politics.com/files/WF-DallasMarch2014.ppt. Accessed May 1, 2014.
3. Farsalinos KE, Spyrou A, Tsimopoulou K, Stefopoulos C, Romagna G, Voudris V. Nicotine absorption from electronic cigarette use: comparison between first and new-generation devices. Sci Rep. 2014;4: 4133.
4. Goniewicz ML, Kuma T, Gawron M, Knysak J, Kosmider L. Nicotine levels in electronic cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15: 158-166.
5. Henningfield JE, Zaatari GS. Electronic nicotine delivery systems: emerging science foundation for policy. Tob Control. 2010;19(2): 89-90.
6. Brown CJ, Cheng JM. Electronic cigarettes: product characterisation and design considerations. Tob Control. 2014;23(suppl 2):ii4-i10.
7. Balhas Z, Talih S, Salman R, Karaoghlanian N, Shihadeh A. Effects of user puff topography and device characteristics on electronic cigarette nicotine yield. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 20th Annual Meeting; Seattle, WA; February, 2014.
8. Kosmider L, Sobczak A, Fik M, et al. Carbonyl compounds in electronic cigarette vapors: effects of nicotine solvent and battery output voltage. Nicotine Tob Res. 2014;16: 1319-1326.
9. Goniewicz ML, Knysak J, Gawron M, et al. Levels of selected carcinogens and toxicants in vapour from electronic cigarettes. Tob Control. 2014;23(2): 133-139.
10. Food and Drug Administration. Tobacco products. www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/ProtectingKidsfromTobacco/FlavoredTobacco/default.htm. Published 2013. Accessed October 21, 2014.
11. Klein SM, Giovino GA, Barker DC, Tworek C, Cummings KM, O'Connor RJ. Use of flavored cigarettes among older adolescent and adult smokers: United States, 2004-2005. Nicotine Tob Res. 2008;10(7): 1209-1214.
12. Cheng T. Chemical evaluation of electronic cigarettes. Tob Control. 2014;23(suppl 2):ii11-ii17.
13. Schroeder MJ, Hoffman AC. Electronic cigarettes and nicotine clinical pharmacology. Tob Control. 2014;23(suppl 2):ii30-ii35.
14. Shihadeh AL, Eissenberg TE. Significance of smoking machine toxicant yields to blood-level exposure in water pipe tobacco smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20(11): 2457-2460.
15. Goniewicz ML, Hajek P, McRobbie H. Nicotine content of electronic cigarettes, its release in vapour and its consistency across batches: regulatory implications. Addiction. 2014;109(3): 500-507.
16. Benowitz NL, Jacob P 3rd, Yu L, Talcott R, Hall S, Jones RT. Reduced tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide exposure while smoking ultralow-but not low-yield cigarettes. JAMA. 1986;256: 241-246.
17. Kozlowski LT, O'Connor RJ. Cigarette filter ventilation is a defective design because of misleading taste, bigger puffs, and blocked vents. TobControl. 2002;11(suppl 1), i40-i50.
18. Schober W, Szendrei K, Matzen W, et al. Use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) impairs indoor air quality and increases FeNO levels of e-cigarette consumers. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2014;217: 628-637.
19. Williams M, Villarreal A, Bozhilov K, Lin S, Talbot P. Metal and silicate particles including nanoparticles are present in electronic cigarette cartomizer fluid and aerosol. PLoS One. 2013;8:e57987.
20. Martonen TB, Musante CJ. Importance of cloud motion on cigarette smoke deposition in lung airways. Inhal Toxicol. 2000;12(suppl 4):261-280.
21. Fuoco FC, Buonanno G, Stabile L, Vigo P. Influential parameters on particle concentration and size distribution in the mainstream of e-cigarettes. Environ Pollut. 2014;184: 523-529.
22. Zhang Y, Sumner W, Chen D. In vitro particle size distributions in electronic and conventional cigarette aerosols suggest comparable deposition patterns. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15: 501-508.
23. Czogala J, Goniewicz ML, Fidelus B, Zielinska-Danch W, Travers MJ, Sobczak A. Secondhand exposure to vapors from electronic cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res. 2014;16: 647-654.
24. McAuley TR, Hopke PK, Zhao J, Babaian S. Comparison of the effects of e-cigarette vapor and cigarette smoke on indoor air quality. Inhal Toxicol. 2012;24: 850-857.
25. Schripp T, Markewitz D, Uhde E, Salthammer T. Does e-cigarette consumption cause passive vaping? Indoor Air. 2013;23(1): 25-31.
26. Sleiman M, Gundel LA, Pankow JF, Jacob P 3rd, Singer BC, Destaillats H. Formation of carcinogens indoors by surface-mediated reactions of nicotine with nitrous acid, leading to potential thirdhand smoke hazards. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2010;107: 6576-6581.
27. McQueen A, Tower S, Sumner W. Interviews with "vapers": implications for future research with electronic cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res. 2011;13(9): 860-867.
28. Shihadeh A, Salmon R, Balhus Z, Karaoghlanian N, Melvani R, Eissenberg T. Factors influencing the toxicant content of electronic cigarette vapor: device characteristics and puff topography. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 19th Annual Meeting; Boston, MA; March, 2013.
29. Bryan M. Pot smoke and mirrors: vaporizer pens hide marijuana use. www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/04/18/302992602/pot-smoke-and-mirrors-vaporizer-pens-hide-marijuana-use. Published 2014. Accessed May 9, 2014.
30. Welch WW. (March 17 2014). Vaporizers, e-cigs of the pot world, are booming. USA Today. www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/03/15/marijuana-vaporizing-gains/6042675/. Accessed October 21, 2014.
31. Wells J. It's pot, it's smokeless - and it's publicly traded. www.cnbc.com/id/101560701. Published 2014. Accessed April 7, 2014.
32. Carter LP, Stitzer ML, Henningfield JE, O'Connor RJ, Cummings KM, Hatsukami DK. Abuse liability assessment of tobacco products including potential reduced exposure products. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18(2): 3241-3262.
33. Schuster CR, Henningfield J. Conference on abuse liability assessment of CNS drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;70(3): S1-S4.
34. Henningfield JE, Hatsukami DK, Zeller M, Peters E. Conference on abuse liability and appeal of tobacco products: conclusions and recommendations. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;116: 1-7.
35. World Health Organization. WHO study group on tobacco product regulation: report on the scientific basis of tobacco product regulation: fourth report of a WHO study group. WHO Technical Report Series, No. 967. www.who.int/tobacco/publications/prod_regulation/trs_967/en/. Published 2012. Accessed October 21, 2014.
36. Benowitz NL. Nicotine addiction. N Engl J Med. 2010;362: 2295-2303.
37. Henningfield JE, Stapleton JM, Benowitz NL, Grayson RF, London ED. Higher levels of nicotine in arterial than in venous blood after cigarette smoking. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1993;33(1): 23-29.
38. Bullen C, McRobbie H, Thornley S, Glover M, Lin R, Laugesen M. Effect of an electronic nicotine delivery device (e cigarette) on desire to smoke and withdrawal, user preferences and nicotine delivery: randomised cross-over trial. Tob Control. 2010;19: 98-103.
39. Dawkins L, Corcoran O. Acute electronic cigarette use: nicotine delivery and subjective effects in regular users. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014;231(2): 401-407.
40. Vansickel AR, Weaver MF, Eissenberg T. Clinical laboratory assessment of the abuse liability of an electronic cigarette. Addiction. 2012;107(8): 1493-1500.
41. Farsalinos KE, Romagna G, Tsiapras D, Kyrzopoulos S, Voudris V. Evaluation of electronic cigarette use (Vaping) topography and estimation of liquid consumption: implications for research protocol standards definition and for public health authorities' regulation. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10(6): 2500-2514.
42. Vansickel AR, Eissenberg T. Electronic cigarettes: effective nicotine delivery after acute administration. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15(1): 267-270.
43. Food and Drug Administration. Guidance for industry assessment of abuse potential of drugs. www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM198650.pdf. Published 2010. Accessed October 21, 2014.
44. Totally Wicked. Totally wicked e-liquid lab report. http://casaa.org/uploads/Totally_Wicked_Lab_report.pdf. Published 2009. Accessed May 8, 2014.
45. Crellin RA. Alkylpyrazine Levels in Philip Morris Brands: Report no RD 1509 Restricted (Bates no. 105467378). British-American Tobacco Company Limited; 1977. http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/chu37a99;jsessionid=1FED38E33E49809AE8D0352FCF260521.tobacco03. Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, University of California, San Francisco.
46. John J, Wakeham H. Breakthrough of the High Taste, Low Tar Cigarette: A Case History of Innovation (Bates No. 2021566196/6216). Philip Morris; 1980. http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pgb68e00;jsessionid=1660F38987C09BDE21EA6B9F20F70EB2.tobacco03. Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, University of California, San Francisco.
47. Lin SS. Basic Flavor Investigation Low Tar /High Flavor Literature Review Special (Bates No. 2046741788/1830). Philip Morris; 1990. http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qsb80b00;jsessionid=139CC6C6CC2D842706D039DC51C5BB27.tobacco03. Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, University of California, San Francisco.
48. Carpenter CM, Wayne GF, Connolly GN. The role of sensory perception in the development and targeting of tobacco products. Addiction. 2007;102(1): 136-147.
49. Megerdichian CL, Rees VW, Wayne GF, Connolly GN. Internal tobacco industry research on olfactory and trigeminal nerve response to nicotine and other smoke components. Nicotine Tob Res. 2007;9(11): 1119-1129.
50. US Department of Health and Human Services. How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2010.
51. Nides MA, Leischow SJ, Bhatter M, Simmons M. Nicotine blood levels and short-term smoking reduction with an electronic nicotine delivery system. Am J Health Behav. 2014;38(2): 265-274.
52. Vardavas CI, Anagnostopoulos N, Kougias M, Evangelopoulou V, Connolly GN, Behrakis PK. Short-term pulmonary effects of using an electronic cigarette: impact on respiratory flow resistance, impedance, and exhaled nitric oxide. Chest. 2012;141(6): 1400-1406.
53. Stein YS, Antal Jr, MJ, Jones Jr, M. A study of the gas-phase pyrolysis of glycerol. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 1983;4(4): 283-296.
54. Stevens JF, Maier CS. Acrolein: sources, metabolism, and biomolecular interactions relevant to human health and disease. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52(1): 7-25.
55. Uchiyama S, Ohta K, Inaba Y, Kunugita N. Determination of carbonyl compounds generated from the E-cigarette using coupled silica cartridges impregnated with hydroquinone and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, followed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Anal Sci. 2013;29(12): 1219-1222.
56. Varughese S, Teschke K, Brauer M, Chow Y, van Netten C, Kennedy SM. Effects of theatrical smokes and fogs on respiratory health in the entertainment industry. Am J Ind Med. 2005;47(5): 411-418.
57. Wieslander G, Norbäck D, Lindgren T. Experimental exposure to propylene glycol mist in aviation emergency training: acute ocular and respiratory effects. Occup Environ Med. 2001;58: 649-655.
58. Hua M, Alfi M, Talbot P. Health-related effects reported by electronic cigarette users in online forums. J Med Internet Res. 2013;15(4): e59.
59. Hecht SS, Yuan JM, Hatsukami D. Applying tobacco carcinogen and toxicant biomarkers in product regulation and cancer prevention. Chem Res Toxicol. 2010;23: 1001-1008.
60. Hukkanen J, Jacob P 3rd, Benowitz NL. Metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine. Pharmacol Rev. 2005;57(1): 79-115.
61. Strasser AA, Benowitz NL, Pinto AG, et al. Nicotine metabolite ratio predicts smoking topography and carcinogen biomarker level. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20: 234-238.
62. Counts ME, Morton MJ, Laffoon SW, Cox RH, Lipowicz PJ. Smoke composition and predicting relationships for international commercial cigarettes smoked with three machine-smoking conditions. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2005;41: 185-227.
63. Carmella SG, Ming X, Olvera N, Brookmeyer C, Yoder A, Hecht SS. High throughput liquid and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assays for tobacco-specific nitrosamine and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites associated with lung cancer in smokers. Chem Res Toxicol. 2013;26(8): 1209-1217.
64. Goniewicz ML, Eisner MD, Lazcano-Ponce E, et al. Comparison of urine cotinine and the tobacco-specific nitrosamine metabolite 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) and their ratio to discriminate active from passive smoking. Nicotine Tob Res. 2011;13(3): 202-208.
65. King BA, Alam S, Promoff G, Arrazola R, Dube SR. Awareness and ever-use of electronic cigarettes among US adults, 2010-2011. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15(9): 1623-1627.
66. Pearson JL, Richardson A, Niaura RS, Vallone DM, Abrams DB. E-cigarette awareness, use, and harm perceptions in US adults. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(9): 1758-1766.
67. Zhu SH, Gamst A, Lee M, Cummins S, Yin L, Zoref L. The use and perception of electronic cigarettes and snus among the US population. PLoS One. 2013;8:e7933.
68. Brown J, Beard E, Kotz D, Michie S, West R. Real-world effectiveness of e-cigarettes when used to aid smoking cessation: a cross-sectional population study. Addiction. 2014;109: 1531-1540.
69. Etter JF. Electronic cigarettes: a survey of users. BMC Public Health. 2010;10: 231.
70. Kralikova E, Novak J, West O, Kmetova A, Hajek P. Do e-cigarettes have the potential to compete with conventional cigarettes?: a survey of conventional cigarette smokers' experiences with e-cigarettes. Chest. 2013;144(5): 1609-1614.
71. Li J, Bullen C, Newcombe R, Walker N, Walton D. The use and acceptability of electronic cigarettes among New Zealand smokers. New Zeal Med J. 2013;126(1375). http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/read-the-journal/all-issues/2010-2019/2013/vol-126-no-1375/article-li2.
72. Vickerman KA, Carpenter KM, Altman T, Nash CM, Zbikowski SM. Use of electronic cigarettes among state tobacco cessation quitline callers. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15(10): 1787-1791.
73. Rath JM, Villanti AC, Abrams DB, Vallone DM. Patterns of tobacco use and dual use in US young adults: the missing link between youth prevention and adult cessation. J Environ Public Health. 2012;2012: 679134.
74. Lee YO, Hebert CJ, Nonnemaker JM, Kim AE. Multiple tobacco product use among adults in the United States: cigarettes, cigars, electronic cigarettes, hookah, smokeless tobacco, and snus. Prev Med. 2014;62: 14-19.
75. Hughes JR, Carpenter MJ. Does smoking reduction increase future cessation and decrease disease risk? A qualitative review. Nicotine Tob Res. 2006;8(6): 739-749.
76. Stead LF, Lancaster T. Interventions to reduce harm from continued tobacco use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(3):CD005231.
77. Caponnetto P, Campagna D, Cibella F, et al. EffiCiency and Safety of an eLectronic cigAreTte (ECLAT) as tobacco cigarettes substitute: a prospective 12-month randomized control design study. PLoS One. 2013;8(6): e66317.
78. Etter JF. Levels of saliva cotinine in electronic cigarette users. Addiction. 2014;109(5): 825-829.
79. Bullen C, Howe C, Laugesen M, et al. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2013;382: 1629-1637.
80. Etter JF, Bullen C. A longitudinal study of electronic cigarette users. Addict Behav. 2014;39: 491-494.
81. Pepper JK, Brewer NT. Electronic nicotine delivery system (electronic cigarette) awareness, use, reactions and beliefs: a systematic review. Tob Control. 2014;23: 375-384.
82. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Electronic cigarette use among middle and high school students - United States, 2011-2012 (Vol. 62). www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6235a6.htm. Published 2013. Accessed October 21, 2014.
83. Camenga DR, Delmerico J, Kong G, et al. Trends in use of electronic nicotine delivery systems by adolescents. Addict Behav. 2014;39(1): 338-340.
84. Camenga DR, Cavallo D, Kong GAP, Morean M, Palmer A, Krishnan-Sarin S. Factors that prevent electronic cigarette initiation in adolescent and young adult smokers and non-smokers. Poster presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 20th Annual Meeting; Seattle, WA; February, 2014.
85. Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Teen smoking continues to decline in 2013: Monitoring the Future. http://home.isr.umich.edu/releases/teen-smoking-continues-to-decline-in-2013/. Published 2013. Accessed May 25, 2014.
86. Dutra LM, Glantz SA. Electronic cigarettes and conventional cigarette use among US Adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(7): 684.
87. Niaura RS, Glynn TJ, Abrams DB. Youth experimentation with e-ciga-rettes: another interpretation of the data. JAMA. 2014;312(6): 641-642.
88. Pepper JK, Reiter PL, McRee AL, Cameron LD, Gilkey MB, Brewer NT. Adolescent males' awareness of and willingness to try electronic cigarettes. J Adolesc Health. 2013;52(2): 144-150.
89. Cavallo D, Kong G, Camenga D, Palmer A, Morean M, Krishnan-Sarin S. A qualitative study on marketing e-cigarettes to adolescents and young adults. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 20th Annual Meeting; Seattle, WA; February, 2014.
90. Kong G, Cavallo D, Camenga DR, Palmer A, Morean M, Krishnan-Sarin S. E-cigarette initiation and discontinuation: a qualitative study. Poster presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 20th Annual Meeting; Seattle, WA; February, 2014.
91. Morean ME, Kong G., Camenga DR, et al. High school and college students' knowledge about and perceptions of flavored electronic cigarettes. Poster presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 20th Annual Meeting; Seattle, WA; February, 2014.
92. Pokhrel P, Little MA, Fagan P, Muranaka N, Herzog TA. Electronic cigarette use outcome expectancies among college students. Addict Behav. 2014;39(6): 1062-1065.
93. Durmowicz EL. The impact of electronic cigarettes on the paediatric population. Tob Control. 2014;23(suppl 2):ii41-ii46.
94. Coleman T, Chamberlain C, Davey MA, Cooper SE, Leonardi-Bee J. Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:CD010078.
95. Coleman T, Cooper S, Thornton JG, et al. A randomized trial of nicotine-replacement therapy patches in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2012;366: 808-818.
96. Oncken C, Dornelas E, Greene J, et al. Nicotine gum for pregnant smokers: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;112(4): 859-867.
97. Wisborg K, Henriksen TB, Jespersen LB, Secher NJ. Nicotine patches for pregnant smokers: a randomized controlled study. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96(6): 967-971.
98. World Health Organization. WHO recommendations for the prevention and management of tobacco use and second-hand smoke exposure in pregnancy. www.who.int/tobacco/publications/pregnancy/guidelinesto-baccosmokeexposure/en/. Published 2013. Accessed October 21, 2014.
99. Perkins KA, Fonte C, Meeker J, White W, Wilson A. The discriminative stimulus and reinforcing effects of nicotine in humans following nicotine pretreatment. Behav Pharmacol. 2001;12: 35-44.
100. Vogel RI, Hertsgaard LA, Dermody SS, et al. Sex differences in response to reduced nicotine content cigarettes. Addict Behav. 2014;39: 1197-1204.
101. Behar RZ, Davis B, Wang Y, Bahl V, Lin S, Talbot P. Identification of toxicants in cinnamon-flavored electronic cigarette refill fluids. Toxicol In Vitro. 2014;28: 198-208.
102. Brown J, West R, Beard E, Michie S, Shahab L, McNeill A. Prevalence and characteristics of e-cigarette users in Great Britain: findings from a general population survey of smokers. Addict Behav. 2014;39(6): 1120-1125.
103. Lindson-Hawley N, Aveyard P, Hughes JR. Gradual reduction vs abrupt cessation as a smoking cessation strategy in smokers who want to quit. JAMA. 2013;310(1): 91-92.