Variability in the Visual Perception of Human Motion as a Function of the Observer's Autistic Traits

People Watching: Social, Perceptual, and Neurophysiological Studies of Body Perception

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages

  Kaiser, Martha D ^a   Shiffrar, Maggie ^b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Autism spectrum disorder; Autistic aloneness; Categorization; Coherent motion; Detection of human motion; Emotion; Local processing bias; Masked point light displays; Neurodevelopmental disorders; Perception of human movement; Social behaviors; Social capabilities; Social skills; Visual sensitivity

Indexed keywords

EID: 84921259869     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195393705.003.0010     Document Type: Chapter

References (124)

1. Adolphs, R. (2008). Fear, faces and the human amygdala. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 166-172.
2. Allison, T., Puce, A., & McCarthy, G. (2000). Social perception from visual cues: Role of the STS region. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 267-278.
3. Atkinson, A. P. (2009). Impaired recognition of emotions from body movements is associated with elevated motion coherence thresholds in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropyschologia, 47, 3023-3029.
4. Atkinson, A. P., Dittrich, W. H., Gemmel, A. J.,... Young, A. W. (2004). Emotion perception from dynamic and static body expressions in point-light and full-light displays. Perception, 33, 717-746.
5. Baiser, J., Ungerleider, L., & Desimone, R. (1991). Organization of visual inputs to the inferior temporal and posterior parietal cortex in macaques. Journal of Neuroscience, 11, 168-190.
6. Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. C. R. (2000). The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 355-364.
7. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 5-17.
8. Bertenthal, B. I., Proffit, D. R., & Cutting, J. E. (1984). Infant sensitivity to figural coherence in biomechanical motions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37, 213-230.
9. Bertone, A., Mottron, L., Jelenic, P.,... Faubert, J. (2003). Motion perception in Autism: A complex issue. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15 (2), 218-225.
10. Best, C. S., Moffat, V. J., Power, M. J., Owens, D. G. C., & Johnstone, E. C. (2008). The boundaries of the cognitive phenotype of autism: Theory of mind, central coherence and ambiguous figure perception in young people with autistic traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 840-847.
11. Bishop, D. V. M., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: A study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1431-1436.
12. Blake, R., & Shiffrar, M. (2007). Perception of human motion. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 47-73.
13. Blake, R., Turner, L., Smoski, M., Pozdol, S., & Stone, W. (2003). Visual recognition of biological motion is impaired in children with Autism. Psychological Science, 14 (2), 151-157.
14. Boddaert, N., Chabane, N., Gervais, H., Good, C. D., Bourgeois, M., Plumet, M. H., et al. (2004). Superior temporal sulcus anatomical abnormalities in childhood autism: A voxel-based morphometry MRI study. NeuroImage, 23 (1), 364-369.
15. Bonda, E., Petrides, M., Ostry, D., & Evans, A. (1996). Specific involvement of human parietal systems and the amygdala in the perception of biological motion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 3737-3744.
16. Bradley, D. C. (2001). Motion perception: Psychological and neural aspects. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 10099-10105). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd.
17. Brown, W. M., Cronk, L., Grochow, K., Jacobson, A., Liu, C. K., et al. (2005). Dance reveals symmetry especially in young men. Nature, 438, 148-150.
18. Carter, E. J., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2006). School-aged children exhibit domain-specific responses to biological motion. Social Neuroscience, 1 (3-4), 396-411.
19. Chakrabarti, B., Dudbridge, F., Kent, L., Wheelwright, S., Hill-Cawthorne, G., Allison, C., et al. (2009). Genes related to sex steroids, neural growth, and social-emotional behavior are associated with autistic traits, empathy, and Asperger syndrome. Autism Research, 2, 157-177.
20. Chouchourelou, A., Matsuka, T., Harber, K., & Shiffrar, M. (2006). The visual analysis of emotional actions. Social Neuroscience, 1, 63-74.
21. Clarke, T. J., Bradshaw, M. F., Field, D. T., Hampson, S. E., & Rose, D. (2005). The perception of emotion from body movement in point-light displays of interpersonal dialogue. Perception, 34, 1171-1180.
22. Constantino, J. N., Lajonchere, C., Lutz, M., Gray, T., Abbacchi, A., McKenna, K., et al. (2006). Autistic social impairment in siblings of children with pervasive developmental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 294-296.
23. Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of subthreshold autistic traits in the general population. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 655-660.
24. Cutting, J. E., Moore, C., & Morrison, R. (1988). Masking the motions of human gait. Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 339-347.
25. Dakin, S., & Frith, U. (2005). Vagaries of visual perception in Autism. Neuron, 48 (3), 497-507.
26. Davis, R. A. O., Bockbrader, M. A., Murphy, R. R., Hetrick, W. P., & O'Donnell, B. F. (2006). Subjective perceptual distortions and visual dysfunction in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36 (2), 199-210.
27. Dawson, G., Webb, S., Schellenberg, G. D., Dager, S., Friedman, S., Aylward, E., et al. (2002). Defining the broader phenotype of autism: Genetic, brain and behavioral perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 581-611.
28. de Gelder, B., Snyder, J., Greve, D., Gerard, G., & Hadjikhani, N. (2004). Fear fosters flight: A mechanism for fear contagion when perceiving emotion expressed by a whole body. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 101, 16701-16706.
29. de Jonge, M. V., Kemner, C., de Haan, E. H., Coppens, J. E., van den Berg, T., & van Engeland, H. (2007). Visual information processing in high-functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders and their parents. Neuropsychology, 21 (1), 65-73.
30. Del Viva, M. M., Igliozzi, R., Tancredi, R., & Brizzolara, D. (2006). Spatial and motion integration in children with autism. Vision Research, 46, 1242-1252.
31. Di Martino, A., Shehzad, Z., Kelly, C., Roy, A. K., Gee, D. G., Uddin, L. Q., et al. (2009). Relationship between cingulo-insular functional connectivity and autistic traits in neurotypical adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, in press.
32. Dittrich, W. H. (1993). Action categories and the perception of biological motion. Perception, 22, 15-22.
33. Dittrich, W. H., Troscianko, T., Lea, S. E. G., & Morgan, D. (1996). Perception of emotion from dynamic point-light displays represented in dance. Perception, 25, 727-738.
34. Eisenberg, L., & Kanner, L. (1956). Early infantile autism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 26, 556-566.
35. Fermano, Z., Kaiser, M. D., & Shiffrar, M. (2009, May). Autistic traits and visual sensitivity to human, animal, and object motion. International Meeting for Autism Research, Chicago, Illinois.
36. Fletcher-Watson, S., Findlay, J. M., Leekam, S. R., & Benson, V. (2009). Eye-movements reveal attention to social information in autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychologia, 47, 248-257.
37. Fox, R., & McDaniel, C. (1982). The perception of biological motion by human infants. Science, 218, 486-488.
38. Frankenhuis, W. E., Barrett, H. C., & Johnson, S. P. (2013). Developmental origins of biological motion perception. In K. L. Johnson & M. Shiffrar (Eds.), People watching: Social, perceptual, and neurophysiological studies of body perception (Chapter 8). New York: Oxford University Press.
39. Freitag, C. M., Konrad, C., Haberlen, M., Kleser, C., von Gontard, A., Reith, W., et al. (2008). Perception of biological motion in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia, 46, 1480-1494.
40. Freyd, J. J. (1983). The mental representation of movement when static stimuli are viewed. Perception & Psychophysics, 33, 575-581.
41. Frith, U. (1989). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science.
42. Grinter, E. J., Maybery, M. T., Van Beek, P. K., Pellicano, E., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2009). Global visual processing and self-rated autistic-like traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, in press.
43. Grossman, E., Donnelly, M., Price, R., Pickens, D., Morgan, V., Neighbor, G., et al. (2000). Brain areas involved in perception of biological motion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12 (5), 711-720.
44. Gunns, R. E., Johnston, L., & Hudson, S. (2002). Victim selection and kinematics: A point-light investigation of vulnerability to attack. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 26, 129-158.
45. Hadjikhani, N., & de Gelder, B. (2003). Seeing fearful body expressions activates the fusiform cortex and amygdala. Current Biology, 13, 2201-2205.
46. Hadjikhani, N., Joseph, R. M., Manoach, D. S., Naik, P., Snyder, J., Dominich, K., et al. (2009). Body expressions of emotion do not trigger fear contagion in autism spectrum disorder. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4 (1), 70-78.
47. Hadjikhani, N., Joseph, R. M., Snyder, J., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2006). Abnormal activation of the social brain during face perception in autism. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 441-449.
48. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: An anger superiority effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 917-924.
49. Happé, F. G. E., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail focused cognitive style in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 5-25.
50. Hein, G., & Knight, R. T. (2008). Superior temporal sulcus-It's my area: Or is it? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 2125-2136.
51. Herrington, J. D., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S. J., Singh, K. D., Bullmore, E. T., Brammer, M. et al. (2007). The role of MT+/V5 during biological motion perception in Asperger Syndrome: An fMRI study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorder, 1, 14-27.
52. Hubert, B., Wicker, B., Moore, D. G., Monfardini, E., Duverger, H., Da Fonseca, D., et al. (2007). Recognition of emotional and non-emotional biological motion in individuals with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37 (7), 1386-1392.
53. Hurst, R. M., Mitchell, J. T., Kimbrel, N. A., Kwapil, T. K., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2007). Examination of the reliability and factor structure of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1938-1949.
54. Jacobs, A., Pinto, J., & Shiffrar, M. (2004). Experience, context, and the visual perception of human movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 30, 822-835.
55. Johansson, G. (1973). Visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis. Perception and Psychophysics, 14, 201-211.
56. Jokisch, D., Daum, I., & Troje, N. (2006). Self-recognition versus recognition of others by biological motion: Viewpoint-dependent effects. Perception, 35, 911-920.
57. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with Autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 527-534.
58. Jordan, H., Reiss, J. E., Hoffman, J. E., & Landau, B. (2002). Intact perception of biological motion in the face of profound spatial deficits: Williams syndrome. Psychological Science, 13, 162-167.
59. Kaiser, M. D., Delmolino, L., Tanaka, J., & Shiffrar, M. (2010). Comparison of visual sensitivity to human and object motion in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Research, 3, 1-5.
60. Kaiser, M. D., Fermano, Z., & Shiffrar, M. (2008). Perception of human movement and magnitude of autistic traits. International Meeting for Autism Research, London, UK.
61. Kaiser, M. D., Hudac, C. M., Shultz, S., Lee, S., Cheung, C., Berken, A. M., Deen, B., Pitskel, N. B., Sugrue, D. R., Voos, A. C., Saulnier, C. A., Ventola, P., Wolf, J. M., Klin, A., Vander Wyk, B. C., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2010). Neural signatures of autism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107 (49), 21223-21228.
62. Kaiser, M. D., & Shiffrar, M. (2009a). The visual perception of motion by observers with autism spectrum disorders: A review and synthesis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 16, 761-777.
63. Kaiser, M. D., & Shiffrar, M. (2009b, May). Visual sensitivity to angry point-light walkers varies as a function of the observer's autistic traits. International Meeting for Autism Research, Chicago, Illinois.
64. Kennedy, D. P. (2009). Neural correlates of autistic traits in the general population: Insights into autism [Editorial]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 849-851.
65. Kim, J., Blake, R., Park, S., Shin, Y., Kang, D., & Kwon, J. S. (2008). Selective impairment in visual perception of biological motion in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 25, E15-E25.
66. Kim, J., Doop, M. L., Blake, R., & Park, S. (2005). Impaired visual recognition of biological motion in schiz ophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 77, 299-307.
67. Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., & Volkmar, F. (2003). The enactive mind, or from actions to cognition: Lessons from autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 358, 345-360.
68. Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., Volkmar, F., & Cohen, D. J. (2002). Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 809-816.
69. Klin, A., Lin, D. J., Gorrindo, P., Ramsay, G., & Jones, W. (2009). Two-year-olds with autism orient to non-social contingencies rather than biological motion. Nature, 459 (7244), 257-261.
70. Kourtzi, Z., & Kanwisher, N. (2000). Activation in human MT/MST for static images with implied motion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 48-55.
71. Kozlowski, L. T., & Cutting, J. E. (1977). Recognizing the sex of a walker from a dynamic point-light display. Perception & Psychophysics, 21, 575-580.
72. Leekam, S. R., Lopez, B., & Moore, C. (2000). Attention and joint attention in preschool children with autism. Developmental Psychology, 36, 261-273.
73. Losh, M., Adolphs, R., Poe, M. D., Couture, S., Penn, D., et al. (2009). Neuropsychological profile of autism and the broad autism phenotype. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 518-526.
74. Loula, F., Prasad, S., Harber, K., & Shiffrar, M. (2005). Recognizing people from their movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 210-220.
75. Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Mervis, C. B., & Berman, K. F. (2006). Neural mechanisms in Williams syndrome: A unique window to gene influences on cognition and behavior. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 7, 380-393.
76. Milne, E., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., Campbell, R., Jeffries, H., & Plaisted, K. (2002). High motion coherence thresholds in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 255-263.
77. Milne, E., White, S., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., & Ramus, F. (2006). Motion and form coherence detection in autism spectrum disorder: Relationship to motor control and 2:4 digit ratio. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 225-237.
78. Moore, D. G., Hobson, R. P., & Lee, A. (1997). Components of person perception: An investigation with autistic, non-autistic retarded and typically developing children and adolescents. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 401-423.
79. Mottron, L. & Burack, J. A. (2001). Enhanced perceptual functioning in the development of autism. In J. A. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), The development of autism: Perspectives from theory and research (pp. 131-148). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
80. Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Stauder, J. E., & Robaey, P. (1999). Perceptual processing among high-functioning persons with Autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 203-211.
81. Nummenmaa, L., Engell, A. D., von dem Hagen, E., Henson, R. N., Calder, A. J. (2012). Autism spectrum traits predict the neural response to eye gaze in typical individuals. NeuroImage, 59, 3356-3363.
82. Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466-478.
83. Öhman, A., Lundqvist, D., & Esteves, F. (2001). The face in the crowd revisited: A threat advantage with schematic stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 381-396.
84. Parron, C., Da Fonesca, D., Santos, A., Moore, D. G., Monfardini, E., & Deruelle, C. (2008). Recognition of biological motion in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 12 (3), 261-274.
85. Pellicano, E., Gibson, L., Maybery, M., Kevin, D., & Badcock, D. (2005). Abnormal global processing along the dorsal visual pathway in autism: A possible mechanism for weak visuospatial coherence? Neuropsychologia, 43 (7), 1044-1053.
86. Pelphrey, K., & Shultz, S. (2013). Brain mechanisms for social perception: Moving toward an understanding of autism. In K. L. Johnson & M. Shiffrar (Eds.), People watching: Social, perceptual, and neurophysiological studies of body perception (Chapter 19). New York: Oxford University Press.
87. Pelphrey, K. A., & Carter, E. J. (2008). Brain mechanisms for social perception: Lessons from autism and typical development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145, 283-299.
88. Pelphrey, K. A., Morris, J. P., McCarthy, G., & LaBar, K. S. (2007). Perception of dynamic changes in facial affect and identity in autism. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2, 140-149.
89. Pinto, J. (1997). Developmental changes in infants' perceptions of point-light displays of human gait. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 57, 5365.
90. Pinto, J., & Shiffrar, M.. (2009). The visual perception of human and animal motion in point-light displays. Social Neuroscience, 4 (4), 332-346.
91. Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Ardnt, S. (1997). Broader autism phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 185-190.
92. Poizner, H., Bellugi, U., & Lutes-Driscoll, V. (1981). Perception of American Sign Language in dynamic point-light displays. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7, 430-440.
93. Pollick, F. E., Kay, J. W., Heim, K., & Stringer, R. (2005). Gender recognition from point-light walkers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 1247-1265.
94. Pollick, F. E., Paterson, H. M., Bruderlin, A., & Sanford, A. J. (2001). Perceiving affect from arm movement. Cognition, 82, B51-B61.
95. Posserud, M. B., Lundervold, A. J., & Gillberg, C. (2006). Autistic features in a total population of 7-9-year-old children assessed by the ASSQ (Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 47, 167-175.
96. Price, K. J. (2006). Motor dysfunction in Asperger's disorder: An analysis of timing, motor planning and visual perception of movement. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 67, 2843.
97. Price, K. J., Shiffrar, M., & Kerns, K. (2012). Movement perception and movement production in Asperger's Syndrome. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 391-398.
98. Pyles, J. A., Garcia, J. O., Hoffman, D. D., & Grossman, E. D. (2007). Visual perception and neural correlates of novel "biological motion." Vision Research, 47 (21), 2786-2797.
99. Reed, C. L., Beall, P. M., Stone, V. E., Kopelioff, L., Pulham, D. J., & Hepburn, S. L. (2007). Perception of body posture-What individuals with autism spectrum disorder might be missing. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1576-1584.
100. Riby, D. M., & Hancock, P. J. B. (2008). Viewing it differently: Social scene perception in Williams syndrome and autism. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2855-2860.
101. Runeson, S., & Frykholm, G. (1983). Kinematic specification of dynamics as an informational basis for person-and-action perception: Expectation, gender recognition, and deceptive intention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 585-615.
102. Saxe, R., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2009). Introduction to a special section of developmental social cognitive neuroscience. Child Development, 80 (4), 946-951.
103. Saygin, A. P. (2007). Superior temporal and premotor brain areas necessary for biological motion perception. Brain, 130, 2452-2461.
104. Schultz, R. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23 (2-3), 125-141.
105. Sebanz, N., & Shiffrar, M. (2009). Detecting deception in a bluffing body: The role of expertise. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 170-175.
106. Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An islet of ability in autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 613-620.
107. Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the block design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1351-1364.
108. Shiffrar, M., Kaiser, M. D., & Chouchourelou, A. (2010). Seeing human movement as inherently social. In R. B. Adams, Jr., N. Ambady, K. Nakayama, & S. Shimojo (Eds.), The science of social vision (p. 248-263). New York: Oxford University Press.
109. Simion, F., Regolin, L., & Bulf, H. (2008). A predisposition for biological motion in the newborn baby. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105 (2), 809-813.
110. Spencer, J., & O'Brien, J. (2006). Visual form processing deficits in autism. Perception, 35 (8), 1047-1055.
111. Spencer, J., O'Brien, J., Riggs, K., Braddick, O., Atkinson, J., & Wattam-Bell, J. (2000). Motion processing in autism: Evidence for a dorsal stream deficiency. NeuroReport, 11 (12), 2765-2767.
112. Stewart, M. E., Watson, J., Allcock, A., & Yaqoob, T. (2009). Autistic traits predict performance on the block design. Autism, 13, 133-142.
113. Takarae, Y., Luna, B., Minshew, N. J., & Sweeney, J. A. (2008). Patterns of visual sensory and sensorimotor abnormalities in autism vary in relation to history of early language delay. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 980-989.
114. Thornton, I., Pinto, J., & Shiffrar, M. (1998). The visual perception of human locomotion. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15, 535-552.
115. Thornton, I. M. (2013). Top-down versus bottom-up processing of biological motion. In K. Johnson & M. Shiffrar (Eds.), People watching: Social, perceptual, and neurophysiological studies of body perception (Chapter 3). New York: Oxford University Press.
116. Tsermentseli, S., O'Brien, J. M., & Spencer, J. (2008). Comparison of form and motion coherence processing in autistic spectrum disorders and dyslexia. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1201-1210.
117. Virji-Babul, N., Kerns, K., Zhou, E., Kapur, A., & Shiffrar, M. (2006). Perceptual-motor deficits in children with Down syndrome: Implications for intervention. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 10, 74-82.
118. Waiter, G. D., Williams, J. H., Murray, A. D., Gilchrist, A., Perret, D. I., & Whiten, A.. (2004). A voxel-based investigation of brain structure in male adolescents with Autism spectrum disorder. NeuroImage, 22 (2), 619-625.
119. Weller, R. E., Wall, J. T., & Kass, J. H. (2004). Cortical connections of the middle temporal visual area (MT) and the superior temporal cortex in owl monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 228 (1), 81-104.
120. Whalen, P. J. (1998). Fear, vigilance, and ambiguity: Initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 7, 177-187.
121. Wolf, J., Tanaka, J., Klaiman, C., Cockburn, J., Herlihy, L., Brown, C., et al. (2008). Specific impairment of face processing abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder using the Let's Face It! skills battery. Autism Research, 1, 329-340.
122. Yin, R. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 141-145.
123. Yoon, J. M. D., & Johnson, S. C. (2009). Biological motion displays elicit social behavior in 12-month-olds. Child Development, 4, 1069-1075.
124. Zilbovicius, M., Meresse, I., Chabane, N., Brunelle, F., Samson, Y., & Boddaert, N. (2006). Autism, the superior temporal sulcus and social perception. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 359-366.