A clinical review of the treatment of catatonia

Frontiers in Psychiatry

Volumn 5, Issue NOV, 2014, Pages

  Sienaert, Pascal ^a,b   Dhossche, Dirk M ^c   Vancampfort, Davy ^a   De Hert, Marc ^a   Gazdag, Gábor ^d,e  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d Szent Istvan and Szent Laszlo Hospitals   (Hungary)

^e SEMMELWEIS UNIVERSITY   (Hungary)

Author keywords

Benzodiazepines; Catatonia; Electroconvulsive therapy; Glutamate antagonists; Transcranial magnetic stimulation; Zolpidem

Indexed keywords

AMANTADINE; ARIPIPRAZOLE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BIPERIDEN; BROMOCRIPTINE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLOZAPINE; ETIRACETAM; FLUPHENAZINE; HALOPERIDOL; LITHIUM SALT; LORAZEPAM; MEMANTINE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PLACEBO; QUETIAPINE; RISPERIDONE; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROIC ACID; ZOLPIDEM;

AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION; BUSH FRANCIS CATATONIA RATING SCALE; CATATONIA; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; FEVER; HUMAN; LABORATORY TEST; NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME; PARKINSONISM; PROGNOSIS; PSYCHOSIS; RATING SCALE; REVIEW; SCREENING TEST; THERAPY EFFECT; THERAPY RESISTANCE; TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

EID: 84915805444     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16640640     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00181     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Pommepuy N, Januel D. [Catatonia: resurgence of a concept. A review of the international literature]. Encephale (2002) 28(6 Pt 1):481-92.
2. Francis A, Fink M, Appiani F, Bertelsen A, Bolwig TG, Braunig P, et al. Catatonia in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. J ECT (2010) 26(4):246-7.
3. Abrams R, Taylor MA. Catatonia: A prospective clinical study. Arch Gen Psychiatry (1976) 33(5):579-81.
4. Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF. Catatonia and its treatment. Schizophr Bull (2010) 36(2):239-42. Epub 2009/12/09.
5. Fontenelle LF, Lauterbach EC, Telles LL, Versiani M, Porto FH, Mendlowicz MV. Catatonia in obsessive-compulsive disorder: etiopathogenesis, differential diagnosis, and clinical management. Cogn Behav Neurol (2007) 20(1):21-4.
6. Shiloh R, Schwartz B, Weizman A, Radwan M. Catatonia as an unusual presentation of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopathology (1995) 28(6):285-90.
7. Moskowitz AK. "Scared stiff": catatonia as an evolutionary-based fear response. Psychol Rev (2004) 111(4):984-1002.
8. Geoffroy PA, Rolland B, Cottencin O. Catatonia and Alcohol Withdrawal: A Complex and Underestimated Syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol (2012) 47(3):288-90.
9. Parameswaran R, Moore K, Hannan T, Austin M. Catatonia associated with temazepam withdrawal. Aust N Z J Psychiatry (2011) 45(11):1006-7.
10. Sivakumar T, Yadav A, Sood M, Khandelwal SK. Lorazepam withdrawal catatonia: a case report. Asian journal of psychiatry (2013) 6(6):620-1.
11. Daniels J. Catatonia: clinical aspects and neurobiological correlates. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2009) 21(4):371-80.
12. Dalmau J, Gleichman AJ, Hughes EG, Rossi JE, Peng X, Lai M, et al. Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis: case series and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol (2008) 7(12):1091-8.
13. Gulyayeva NA, Massie MJ, Duhamel KN. Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: Psychiatric presentation and diagnostic challenges from psychosomatic medicine perspective. Palliative & supportive care (2014) 12(2):159-63.
14. Wing L, Shah A. Catatonia in autistic spectrum disorders. Br J Psychiatry (2000) 176:357-62.
15. Dhossche D, Goetz M, Gazdag G, Sienaert P. New DSM-5 category 'unspecified catatonia' is a boost for pediatric catatonia: review and case reports. Neuropsychiatry (2013) 3(4):401-10.
16. Raffin M, Zugaj-Bensaou L, Bodeau N, Milhiet V, Laurent C, Cohen D, et al. Treatment use in a prospective naturalistic cohort of children and adolescents with catatonia. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2014). doi: 10.1007/s00787-014-0595-y. PubMed PMID: 25159089.
17. Stauder. Die todliche Katatonie. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr (1934) 102:614-34.
18. Sienaert P, Dhossche DM, Gazdag G. Adult catatonia: etiopathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Neuropsychiatry (2013) 3(4):391-9.
19. Sienaert P, Rooseleer J, De Fruyt J. Measuring catatonia: a systematic review of rating scales. J Affect Disord (2011) 135(1-3):1-9.
20. Rooseleer J, Willaert A, Sienaert P. [Rating scales for assessing catatonia; which ones are the best?]. Tijdschr Psychiatr (2011) 53(5):287-98.
21. Gazdag G, Sienaert P. Diagnosing and Treating Catatonia: An Update. Current Psychiatry Reviews (2013) 9(2):130-5.
22. Lazar-Molnar E, Tebo AE. Autoimmune NMDA receptor encephalitis. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry (2014) 438C:90-7.
23. Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF. Serum iron and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Lancet (1991) 338(8760):149-51.
24. Lee JW. Serum iron in catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry (1998) 44(6):499-507. Epub 1998/10/20.
25. Hoch A, MacCurdy JT. Benign stupors; a study of a new manic-depressive reaction type. New York,: The Macmillan Company (1921). xi, 284 p. p.
26. Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Chow LY, Lau BS, Tang WK. Lorazepam for chronic catatonia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) (1999) 142(4):393-8.
27. Lee JW, Schwartz DL, Hallmayer J. Catatonia in a psychiatric intensive care facility: incidence and response to benzodiazepines. Ann Clin Psychiatry (2000) 12(2):89-96.
28. Pataki J, Zervas IM, Jandorf L. Catatonia in a University Inpatient Service (1985-1990). Convuls Ther (1992) 8(3):163-73.
29. Thomas P, Cottencin O, Rascle C, Vaiva G, Goudemand M, Bieder J. Catatonia in French Psychiatry: Implications for the Zolpidem Challenge Test. Psychiatric Annals (2007) 37(1):45-54.
30. Tibrewal P, Narayanaswamy J, Zutshi A, Srinivasaraju R, Math SB. Response rate of lorazepam in catatonia: a developing country's perspective. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2010) 34(8):1520-2.
31. Narayanaswamy JC, Tibrewal P, Zutshi A, Srinivasaraju R, Math SB. Clinical predictors of response to treatment in catatonia. Gen Hosp Psychiatry (2012) 34(3):312-6.
32. Rohland BM, Carroll BT, Jacoby RG. ECT in the treatment of the catatonic syndrome. J Affect Disord (1993) 29(4):255-61.
33. Beckmann H, Fritze J, Franzek E. The influence of neuroleptics on specific syndromes and symptoms in schizophrenics with unfavourable long-term course. A 5-year follow-up study of 50 chronic schizophrenics. Neuropsychobiology (1992) 26(1-2):50-8.
34. Ungvari GS, CaroffSN, Gerevich J. The catatonia conundrum: evidence of psychomotor phenomena as a symptom dimension in psychotic disorders. Schizophr Bull (2010) 36(2):231-8.
35. Singh LK, Praharaj SK. Immediate response to lorazepam in a patient with 17 years of chronic catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2013) 25(3):E47-8.
36. Mon T, L'Ecuyer S, Farber NB, White AJ, Baszis KW, Hearn JK, et al. The use of electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus and catatonia. Lupus (2012) 21(14):1575-81.
37. Bulbul F, Unal A, Copoglu US, Alpak G, Savas HA. Persistent catatonia for 1.5 years finally resolved with electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT (2013) 29(1):e1.
38. Gaind GS, Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF. Lorazepam treatment of acute and chronic catatonia in two mentally retarded brothers. J Clin Psychiatry (1994) 55(1):20-3.
39. Ripley TL, Millson RC. Psychogenic catatonia treated with lorazepam. Am J Psychiatry (1988) 145(6):764-5.
40. Salam SA, Pillai AK, Beresford TP. Lorazepam for psychogenic catatonia. Am J Psychiatry (1987) 144(8):1082-3.
41. Nazarian RS, Liebman LS, Kellner CH. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for catatonia: delay may be risky. Lupus (2013) 22(3):336.
42. Meduna L. Die Konvulsionstherapie der Schizophrenie. Halle: Carl Marhold Verlagsbuchhandlung (1937).
43. Gazdag G, Bitter I, Ungvari GS, Baran B, Fink M. Laszlo Meduna's pilot studies with camphor inductions of seizures: the first 11 patients. J ECT (2009) 25(1):3-11.
44. Urstein M. Manisch-depressives und periodisches Irresein als Erscheinungsform der Katatonie. Berlin und Wien: Urban und Schwarzenberg (1912).
45. Fink M. Catatonia: syndrome or schizophrenia subtype? Recognition and treatment. J Neural Transm (2001) 108(6):637-44.
46. Fink M, Taylor MA. Catatonia: a clinician's guide to diagnosis and treatment. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press (2003). xvii, 256 p. p.
47. van Waarde JA, Tuerlings JH, Verwey B, van der Mast RC. Electroconvulsive therapy for catatonia: treatment characteristics and outcomes in 27 patients. J ECT (2010) 26(4):248-52.
48. Swartz CM, Acosta D, Bashir A. Diminished ECT response in catatonia due to chronic neurologic condition. J ECT (2003) 19(2):110-4.
49. Rosebush PI. Perspectives on catatonia: 2 decades of personal clinical experience. 10th World Congress of Biological Psychiatry; 29 May - 2 June 2011; Prague (2011).
50. Clinebell K, Azzam PN, Gopalan P, Haskett R. Guidelines for preventing common medical complications of catatonia: case report and literature review. J Clin Psychiatry (2014) 75(6):644-51.
51. White DA, Robins AH. Catatonia: harbinger of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Psychiatry (1991) 158:419-21.
52. White DA. Catatonia and the neuroleptic malignant syndrome--a single entity? Br J Psychiatry (1992) 161:558-60.
53. Braunig P, Kruger S, Hoffler J. [Exacerbation of catatonic symptoms in neuroleptic therapy]. Nervenarzt (1995) 66(5):379-82.
54. Carroll BT, Lee JWY, Appiani F, Thomas C. The pharmacotherapy of catatonia. Primary Psychiatry (2010) 17(4):41-7.
55. Adityanjee, Aderibigbe YA, Mathews T. Epidemiology of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol (1999) 22(3):151-8.
56. Lee JW. Neuroleptic-induced catatonia: clinical presentation, response to benzodiazepines, and relationship to neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol (2010) 30(1):3-10.
57. Lewis AL, Pelic C, Kahn DA. Malignant catatonia in a patient with bipolar disorder, B12 deficiency, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: one cause or three? J Psychiatr Pract (2009) 15(5):415-22.
58. Goetz M, Kitzlerova E, Hrdlicka M, Dhossche D. Combined use of electroconvulsive therapy and amantadine in adolescent catatonia precipitated by cyber-bullying. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol (2013) 23(3):228-31.
59. Ungvari GS, Kau LS, Wai-Kwong T, Shing NF. The pharmacological treatment of catatonia: an overview. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2001) 251 Suppl 1:I31-4.
60. Naber D, Holzbach R, Perro C, Hippius H. Clinical management of clozapine patients in relation to efficacy and side-effects. Br J Psychiatry Suppl (1992) (17):54-9.
61. Rommel O, TegenthoffM, Widdig W, Braunig P, Malin JP. Organic catatonia following frontal lobe injury: response to clozapine. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (1998) 10(2):237-8.
62. Hung YY, Yang PS, Huang TL. Clozapine in schizophrenia patients with recurrent catatonia: report of two cases. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2006) 60(2):256-8.
63. England ML, Ongur D, Konopaske GT, Karmacharya R. Catatonia in psychotic patients: clinical features and treatment response. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2011) 23(2):223-6.
64. Cassidy EM, O'Brien M, Osman MF, Finucane J, O'Keane V. Lethal catatonia responding to high-dose olanzapine therapy. J Psychopharmacol (2001) 15(4):302-4.
65. Martenyi F, Metcalfe S, Schausberger B, Dossenbach MR. An efficacy analysis of olanzapine treatment data in schizophrenia patients with catatonic signs and symptoms. J Clin Psychiatry (2001) 62 Suppl 2:25-7.
66. Numata S, Kato O, Misawa H. treatment of Catatonia with Olanzapine. German Journal of Psychiatry (2002) 5:115-6.
67. Kopala LC, Caudle C. Acute and longer-term effects of risperidone in a case of first-episode catatonic schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol (1998) 12(3):314-7.
68. Valevski A, Loebl T, Keren T, Bodinger L, Weizman A. Response of catatonia to risperidone: two case reports. Clin Neuropharmacol (2001) 24(4):228-31.
69. Van Den Eede F, Van Hecke J, Van Dalfsen A, Van den Bossche B, Cosyns P, Sabbe BG. The use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of catatonia. Eur Psychiatry (2005) 20(5-6):422-9.
70. Grenier E, Ryan M, Ko E, Fajardo K, John V. Risperidone and lorazepam concomitant use in clonazepam refractory catatonia: a case report. J Nerv Ment Dis (2011) 199(12):987-8.
71. Yoshimura B, Hirota T, Takaki M, Kishi Y. Is quetiapine suitable for treatment of acute schizophrenia with catatonic stupor? A case series of 39 patients. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat (2013) 9:1565-71.
72. Girish K, Gill NS. Electroconvulsive Therapy in Lorazepam Non-responsive Catatonia. Indian Journal of Psychiatry (2003) 45(1):21-5.
73. Detweiler MB, Mehra A, Rowell T, Kim KY, Bader G. Delirious mania and malignant catatonia: a report of 3 cases and review. Psychiatr Q (2009) 80(1):23-40.
74. Lee BS, Huang SS, Hsu WY, Chiu NY. Clinical features of delirious mania: a series of five cases and a brief literature review. BMC Psychiatry (2012) 12:65.
75. Fink M, Taylor MA. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is malignant catatonia, warranting treatments efficacious for catatonia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2006) 30(6):1182-3; author reply 4-5.
76. Seitz DP, Gill SS. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome complicating antipsychotic treatment of delirium or agitation in medical and surgical patients: case reports and a review of the literature. Psychosomatics (2009) 50(1):8-15.
77. Dhossche DM, Wachtel LE, Goetz M, Sienaert P. Catatonia in psychiatric illnessess. In: Fatemi H, Clayton P, editors. The Medical Basis of Psychiatry. Springer (2015).
78. Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, Dowling F, Francis A. Catatonia. II. Treatment with lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand (1996) 93(2):137-43.
79. McEvoy JP. Relief from catatonic immobility can be maintained. J Clin Psychopharmacol (1986) 6(2):126-7.
80. Thomas P, Rascle C, Mastain B, Maron M, Vaiva G. Test for catatonia with zolpidem. Lancet (1997) 349(9053):702.
81. Cottencin O, Warembourg F, de Chouly de Lenclave MB, Lucas B, Vaiva G, Goudemand M, et al. Catatonia and consultation-liaison psychiatry study of 12 cases. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2007) 31(6):1170-6.
82. Rosebush PI, Hildebrand AM, Furlong BG, Mazurek MF. Catatonic syndrome in a general psychiatric inpatient population: frequency, clinical presentation, and response to lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry (1990) 51(9):357-62.
83. Rosebush PI, Hildebrand AM, Mazurek MF. The treatment of catatonia: benzodiazepines of ECT? Am J Psychiatry (1992) 149(9):1279-80.
84. Hawkins JM, Archer KJ, Strakowski SM, Keck PE. Somatic treatment of catatonia. Int J Psychiatry Med (1995) 25(4):345-69.
85. Payee H, Chandrasekaran R, Raju GV. Catatonic syndrome: treatment response to Lorazepam. Indian J Psychiatry (1999) 41(1):49-53.
86. Hung YY, Huang TL. Lorazepam and diazepam rapidly relieve catatonic features in major depression. Clin Neuropharmacol (2006) 29(3):144-7.
87. Huang YC, Lin CC, Hung YY, Huang TL. Rapid relief of catatonia in mood disorder by lorazepam and diazepam. Biomedical journal (2013) 36(1):35-9.
88. McEvoy JP, Lohr JB. Diazepam for catatonia. Am J Psychiatry (1984) 141(2):284-5.
89. Huang TL. Lorazepam and diazepam rapidly relieve catatonic signs in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2005) 59(1):52-5.
90. Hung YY, Huang TL. Lorazepam and diazepam for relieving catatonic features in multiple sclerosis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2007) 31(7):1537-8.
91. Schmider J, Standhart H, Deuschle M, Drancoli J, Heuser I. A double-blind comparison of lorazepam and oxazepam in psychomotor retardation and mutism. Biol Psychiatry (1999) 46(3):437-41.
92. Clothier JL, Pazzaglia P, Freeman TW. Evaluation and treatment of catatonia. Am J Psychiatry (1989) 146(4):553-4.
93. Martenyi F, Harangozo J, Mod L. Clonazepam for the treatment of stupor in catatonic schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (1989) 146(9):1230.
94. Benazzi F. Parenteral clonazepam for catatonia. Can J Psychiatry (1991) 36(4):312.
95. Kumar R. Acute severe catatonia in a young woman with chronic schizophrenia responding to parenteral clonazepam. Aust N Z J Psychiatry (2001) 35(3):391.
96. Manjunatha N, Saddichha S, Khess CR. Idiopathic recurrent catatonia needs maintenance lorazepam: case report and review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry (2007) 41(7):625-7.
97. Grover S, Aggarwal M. Long-term maintenance lorazepam for catatonia: a case report. Gen Hosp Psychiatry (2011) 33(1):82 e1-3.
98. Rascle C, Thomas P, Maron M, Mastain B, Guesdon I, Cottencin O, et al. Catatonia relief with zolpidem: an open study. European Neuropsychopharmacology (1997) 7(Suppl 2):S277.
99. Zaw ZF, Bates GD. Replication of zolpidem test for catatonia in an adolescent. Lancet (1997) 349(9069):1914.
100. Peglow S, Prem V, McDaniel W. Treatment of catatonia with zolpidem. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2013) 25(3):E13.
101. Hlal H, Kettani N, Berhili N, Rammouz I, Aalouane R. Place du zolpidem dans le traitement des catatonies résistantes aux benzodiazépines. À propos d'un cas. Presse Med (2014).
102. Mastain B, Vaiva G, Guerouaou D, Pommery J, Thomas P. [Favourable effect of zolpidem on catatonia]. Rev Neurol (Paris) (1995) 151(1):52-6.
103. Carroll BT, Goforth HW, Thomas C, Ahuja N, McDaniel WW, Kraus MF, et al. Review of adjunctive glutamate antagonist therapy in the treatment of catatonic syndromes. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2007) 19(4):406-12.
104. Gelenberg AJ, Mandel MR. Catatonic reactions to high-potency neuroleptic drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry (1977) 34(8):947-50.
105. Obregon DF, Velasco RM, Wuerz TP, Catalano MC, Catalano G, Kahn D. Memantine and catatonia: a case report and literature review. J Psychiatr Pract (2011) 17(4):292-9.
106. Babington PW, Spiegel DR. Treatment of catatonia with olanzapine and amantadine. Psychosomatics (2007) 48(6):534-6.
107. Muneoka K, Shirayama Y, Kon K, Kawabe M, Goto M, Kimura S. Improvement of mutism in a catatonic schizophrenia case by add-on treatment with amantadine. Pharmacopsychiatry (2010) 43(4):151-2.
108. Hervey WM, Stewart JT, Catalano G. Treatment of catatonia with amantadine. Clin Neuropharmacol (2012) 35(2):86-7.
109. de Lucena DF, Pinto JP, Hallak JE, Crippa JA, Gama CS. Short-term treatment of catatonia with amantadine in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol (2012) 32(4):569-72.
110. Ene-Stroescu V, Nguyen T, Waiblinger BE. Excellent response to amantadine in a patient with bipolar disorder and catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2014) 26(1):E43.
111. Mahmood T. Bromocriptine in catatonic stupor. Br J Psychiatry (1991) 158:437-8.
112. Franz M, Gallhofer B, Kanzow WT. Treatment of catatonia with intravenous biperidene. Br J Psychiatry (1994) 164(6):847-8.
113. DelBello MP, Foster KD, Strakowski SM. Case report: treatment of catatonia in an adolescent male. The Journal of adolescent health: official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine (2000) 27(1):69-71.
114. Kruger S, Braunig P. Intravenous valproic acid in the treatment of severe catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2001) 13(2):303-4.
115. Bowers R, Ajit SS. Is there a role for valproic acid in the treatment of catatonia? J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2007) 19(2):197-8.
116. Yoshida I, Monji A, Hashioka S, Ito M, Kanba S. Prophylactic effect of valproate in the treatment for siblings with catatonia: a case report. J Clin Psychopharmacol (2005) 25(5):504-5.
117. Muneer A. Catatonia in a patient with bipolar disorder type I. Journal of neurosciences in rural practice (2014) 5(3):314-6.
118. Chouinard MJ, Nguyen DK, Clement JF, Bruneau MA. Catatonia induced by levetiracetam. Epilepsy Behav (2006) 8(1):303-7.
119. McDaniel WW, Spiegel DR, Sahota AK. Topiramate effect in catatonia: a case series. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2006) 18(2):234-8.
120. Rankel HW, Rankel LE. Carbamazepine in the treatment of catatonia. Am J Psychiatry (1988) 145(3):361-2.
121. Wald D, Lerner J. Lithium in the treatment of periodic catatonia: a case report. Am J Psychiatry (1978) 135(6):751-2.
122. Pheterson AD, EstroffTW, Sweeney DR. Severe prolonged catatonia with associated flushing reaction responsive to lithium carbonate. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry (1985) 24(2):235-7.
123. Gjessing LR. Lithium citrate loading of a patient with periodic catatonia. Acta Psychiatr Scand (1967) 43(4):372-5.
124. Petursson H. Lithium treatment of a patient with periodic catatonia. Acta Psychiatr Scand (1976) 54(4):248-53.
125. Looper KJ, Milroy TM. Catatonia 20 years later. Am J Psychiatry (1997) 154(6):883.
126. Sugahara Y, Tsukamoto H, Sasaki T. Lithium carbonate in prophylaxis of reappearing catatonic stupor: case report. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2000) 54(5):607-9.
127. Padhy SK, Subodh B, Bharadwaj R, Arun Kumar K, Kumar S, Srivastava M. Recurrent catatonia treated with lithium and carbamazepine: a series of 2 cases. The primary care companion to CNS disorders (2011) 13(1).
128. Kennedy SH, Milev R, Giacobbe P, Ramasubbu R, Lam RW, Parikh SV, et al. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. IV. Neurostimulation therapies. J Affect Disord (2009) 117 Suppl 1:S44-53.
129. Suzuki K, Awata S, Matsuoka H. One-year outcome after response to ECT in middle-aged and elderly patients with intractable catatonic schizophrenia. J ECT (2004) 20(2):99-106.
130. Suzuki K, Awata S, Takano T, Ebina Y, Iwasaki H, Matsuoka H. Continuation electroconvulsive therapy for relapse prevention in middle-aged and elderly patients with intractable catatonic schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2005) 59(4):481-9.
131. Suzuki K, Awata S, Takano T, Ebina Y, Shindo T, Harada N, et al. Adjusting the frequency of continuation and maintenance electroconvulsive therapy to prevent relapse of catatonic schizophrenia in middle-aged and elderly patients who are relapse-prone. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2006) 60(4):486-92.
132. Hatta K, Miyakawa K, Ota T, Usui C, Nakamura H, Arai H. Maximal response to electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of catatonic symptoms. J ECT (2007) 23(4):233-5.
133. Escobar R, Rios A, Montoya ID, Lopera F, Ramos D, Carvajal C, et al. Clinical and cerebral blood flow changes in catatonic patients treated with ECT. J Psychosom Res (2000) 49(6):423-9.
134. Morrison JR. Catatonia: prediction of outcome. Compr Psychiatry (1974) 15(4):317-24.
135. Raveendranathan D, Narayanaswamy JC, Reddi SV. Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci (2012) 262(5):425-30.
136. Malur C, Pasol E, Francis A. ECT for prolonged catatonia. J ECT (2001) 17(1):55-9.
137. Ozgen H, Wijkstra J, Vorstman J. Successful electroconvulsive therapy in a young woman with chronic catatonia. The primary care companion to CNS disorders (2012) 14(3).
138. Cupina D, Patil S, Loo C. Chronic catatonic schizophrenia treated successfully with right unilateral ultrabrief pulse electroconvulsive therapy: case report. J ECT (2013) 29(2):134-6.
139. de Silva VA, Lakmini WD, Gunawardena HN, Hanwella R. Chronic catatonia treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a case report. Journal of medical case reports (2013) 7:219.
140. Gazdag G, Kocsis-Ficzere N, Tolna J. The augmentation of clozapine treatment with electroconvulsive therapy. Ideggyogy Sz (2006) 59(7-8):261-7.
141. DeJong H, Bunton P, Hare DJ. A Systematic Review of Interventions Used to Treat Catatonic Symptoms in People with Autistic Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord (2014) Sep;44(9):2127-36.
142. Consoli A, Benmiloud M, Wachtel L, Dhossche D, Cohen D, Bonnot O. Electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with the catatonia syndrome: efficacy and ethics. J ECT (2010) 26(4):259-65.
143. Cristancho P, Jewkes D, Mon T, Conway C. Successful use of right unilateral ECT for catatonia: a case series. J ECT (2014) 30(1):69-72.
144. Rhoads JC, Votolato NA, Young JL, Gilchrist RH. The successful use of right unilateral ultrabrief pulse electroconvulsive therapy in an adolescent with catatonia. Brain Stimul (2010) 3(1):51-3.
145. Kugler JL, Hauptman AJ, Collier SJ, Walton AE, Murthy S, Funderburg LG, et al. Treatment of Catatonia With Ultrabrief Right Unilateral Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Case Series. J ECT (2014). doi: DOI: 10.1097/YCT.0000000000000185.
146. Kellner CH, Popeo DM, Aloysi AS. Electroconvulsive therapy for catatonia. Am J Psychiatry (2010) 167(9):1127-8; author reply 8.
147. Grisaru N, Chudakov B, Yaroslavsky Y, Belmaker RH. Catatonia treated with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Am J Psychiatry (1998) 155(11):1630.
148. Saba G, Rocamora JF, Kalalou K, Benadhira R, Plaze M, Aubriot-Delmas B, et al. Catatonia and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Am J Psychiatry (2002) 159(10):1794.
149. Di Michele V, Bolino F. A novel treatment option of bipolar depression with psychotic and catatonic features. Gen Hosp Psychiatry (2006) 28(4):364-5.
150. Kate MP, Raju D, Vishwanathan V, Khan FR, Nair, Thomas SV. Successful treatment of refractory organic catatonic disorder with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) therapy. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences (2011) 23(3):E2-3.
151. Trojak B, Meille V, Bonin B, Chauvet-Geliner J-C. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for the Treatment of Catatonia: an Alternative Treatment to Electroconvulsive Therapy? J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2014) 26(2):E42-E3.