Examining fire-prone forest landscapes as coupled human and natural systems

Ecology and Society

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2014, Pages

  Spies, Thomas A ^a   White, Eric M ^b   Kline, Jeffrey D ^a   Paige Fischer, A ^a   Ager, Alan ^a   Bailey, John ^b   Bolte, John ^b   Koch, Jennifer ^c   Platt, Emily ^b   Olsen, Christine S ^b   Jacobs, Derric ^b   Shindler, Bruce ^b   Steen Adams, Michelle M ^d   Hammer, Roger ^b  

^a USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^b OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

Agent based model; CHANS; Coupled human and natural systems; Fire policy; Fire prone landscapes

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT; FIRE MANAGEMENT; FOREST FIRE; FOREST MANAGEMENT; FORESTRY POLICY; MODELING;

OREGON; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84911383427     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17083087     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5751/ES-06584-190309     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Abrams, J. B., H. Gosnell, N. J. Gill, and P. J. Klepeis. 2012. Recreating the rural, reconstructing nature: an international literature review of the environmental implications of amenity migration. Conservation and Society 10(3):270-284. http://dx.doi. org/10.4103/0972-4923.101837
2. Adger, W. N. 2000. Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in Human Geography 24(3):347-364. http://dx. doi.org/10.1191/030913200701540465
3. Adger, W. N. 2003. Social capital, collective action, and adaptation to climate change. Economic Geography 79 (4):387-404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2003.tb00220. x
4. Agee, J. K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
5. Agee, J. K., and C. N. Skinner. 2005. Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 211 (1-2):83-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.01.034
6. Alberti, M., H. Asbjornsen, L. A. Baker, N. Brozovic, L. E. Drinkwater, S. A. Drzyzga, C. A. Jantz, J. Fragoso, D. S. Holland, T. A. Kohler, J. Liu, W. J. McConnell, H. D. G. Maschner, J. D. A. Millington, M. Monticino, G. Podestá, R. G. Pontius, Jr., C. L. Redman, N. J. Reo, D. Sailor, and G. Urquhart. 2011. Research on coupled human and natural systems (CHANS): approach, challenges, and strategies. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 92(2):218-228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9623-92.2.218
7. Alig, R. J., and E. M. White. 2007. Projections of forestland and developed land areas in western Washington. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 22(1):29-35.
8. An, L. 2012. Modeling human decisions in coupled human and natural systems: review of agent-based models. Ecological Modelling 229:25-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.07.010
9. Berkes, F. 2007. Understanding uncertainty and reducing vulnerability: lessons from resilience thinking. Natural Hazards 41(2):283-295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9036-7
10. Berkes, F., and H. Ross. 2013. Community resilience: toward an integrated approach. Society and Natural Resources 26(1):5-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.736605
11. Bolte, J. P., D. W. Hulse, S. V. Gregory, and C. Smith. 2007. Modeling biocomplexity - actors, landscapes and alternative futures. Environmental Modelling and Software 22(5):570-579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2005.12.033
12. Bowman, D. M. J. S., J. K. Balch, P. Artaxo, W. J. Bond, J. M. Carlson, M. A. Cochrane, C. M. D'Antonio, R. S. DeFries, J. C. Doyle, S. P. Harrison, F. H. Johnston, J. E. Keeley, M. A. Krawchuk, C. A. Kull, J. B. Marston, M. A. Moritz, I. C. Prentice, C. I. Roos, A. C. Scott, T. W. Swetnam, G. R. van der Werf, and S. J. Pyne. 2009. Fire in the earth system. Science 324 (5926):481-484. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1163886
13. Bowman, D. M. J. S., J. Balch, P. Artaxo, W. J. Bond, M. A. Cochrane, C. M. D'Antonio, R. DeFries, F. H. Johnston, J. E. Keeley, M. A. Krawchuk, C. A. Kull, M. Mack, M. A. Moritz, S. Pyne, C. I. Roos, A. C. Scott, N. S. Sodhi, and T. W. Swetnam. 2011. The human dimension of fire regimes on earth. Journal of Biogeography 38(12):2223-2236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2699.2011.02595.x
14. Brenkert-Smith, H., P. A. Champ, and N. Flores. 2006. Insights into wildfire mitigation decisions among wildland-urban interface residents. Society and Natural Resources 19(8):759-768. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920600801207
15. Brogan, P. F. 1940. East of the Cascades. Binford and Mort, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA.
16. Butler, W. H., and B. E. Goldstein. 2010. The US Fire Learning Network: springing a rigidity trap through multiscalar collaborative networks. Ecology and Society 15(3): 21. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss3/art21/.
17. Castella, J.-C. 2009. Assessing the role of learning devices and geovisualisation tools for collective action in natural resource management: experiences from Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Management 90(2):1313-1319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvman.2008.07.010
18. Chapin, F. S. III, T. S. Rupp, A. M. Starfield, L. DeWilde, E. S. Zavaleta, N. Fresco, J. Henkelman, and A. D. McGuire. 2003. Planning for resilience: modeling change in human-fire interactions in the Alaskan boreal forest. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1(5):255-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295 (2003)001[0255:PFRMCI]2.0.CO;2
19. Cumming, G. S., D. H. M. Cumming, and C. L. Redman. 2006. Scale mistmatches in social-ecological systems: causes, consequences and solutions. Ecology and Society 11(1): 14. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/ art14/.
20. Daniel, T. C. 2008. Managing individual response: lessons from public health risk behavioral research. Pages 103-116 in W. E. Martin, C. Raish, and B. Kent, editors. Wildfire risk: human perceptions and management implications. Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., USA.
21. Dmitri, C., A. Effland, and N. Conklin. 2005. The 20th century transformation of U.S. agriculture and farm policy. Economic Information Bulletin Number 3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. [online] URL: http://www.ers.usda.gov/ publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib3.aspx.
22. Economic Development for Central Oregon. 2009. 2009 central Oregon area profile. EDCO, Bend, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: http://www.edcoinfo.com/CEDocuments/Downloads_GetFile.aspx? id=360978&fd=0.
23. Eriksen, C., and T. Prior. 2011. The art of learning: wildfire, amenity migration and local environmental knowledge. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20(4):612-624. http://dx. doi.org/10.1071/WF10018
24. Everett, Y., and M. Fuller. 2011. Fire safe councils in the interface. Society and Natural Resources 24(4):319-333. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/08941920903313835
25. Finney, M. A. 2006. An overview of FlamMap fire modeling capabilities. Pages 213-220 in P. L. Andrews and B. W. Butler, editors. Fuels management-how to measure success: conference proceedings. Proceedings RMRS-P-41. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. [online] URL: http://www.iawfonline.org/pdf/fuels/contents.pdf.
26. Fischer, A. P. 2011. Reducing hazardous fuels on nonindustrial private forests: factors influencing landowner decisions. Journal of Forestry 109(5):260-266.
27. Fischer, A. P., A. Callahan, J. Koch, T. A. Spies, C. S. Olsen, E. M. White, and D. Jacobs. 2012. Using an agent-based social network model to investigate interactions between social and ecological systems: early reflections on the forest, people, fire project. Practicing Anthropology 35(1):8-13.
28. Fischer, A. P., and S. Charnley. 2012. Risk and cooperation: managing hazardous fuel in mixed ownership landscapes. Environmental Management 49(6):1192-1207. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s00267-012-9848-z
29. Fischer, A. P., J. D. Kline, A. A. Ager, S. Charnley, and K. A. Olsen. 2014. Objective and perceived wildfire risk and its influence on private forest landowners' fuel reduction activities in Oregon's (USA) ponderosa pine region. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23(1):143-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WF12164
30. Folke, C. 2006. Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change 16(3):253-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002
31. Gordon, J. S., D. Matarrita-Cascante, R. C. Stedman, and A. E. Luloff. 2010. Wildfire perception and community change. Rural Sociology 75(3):455-477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2010.00021. X
32. Heckbert, S., T. Baynes, and A. Reeson. 2010. Agent-based modeling in ecological economics. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1185:39-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1749-6632.2009.05286.x
33. Hessburg, P. F., and J. K. Agee. 2003. An environmental narrative of Inland Northwest United States forests, 1800-2000. Forest Ecology and Management 178(1-2):23-59. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00052-5
34. Hicke, J. A., M. C. Johnson, J. L. Hayes, and H. K. Preisler. 2012. Effects of bark beetle-caused tree mortality on wildfire. Forest Ecology and Management 271:81-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. foreco.2012.02.005
35. Hulse, D. W., A. Branscomb, C. Enright, and J. P. Bolte. 2009. Anticipating floodplain trajectories: a comparison of two alternative futures approaches. Landscape Ecology 24 (8):1067-1090. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-008-9255-2
36. Ince, P. J., A. D. Kramp, K. E. Skog, D.-I. Yoo, and V. A. Sample. 2011. Modeling future U.S. forest sector market and trade impacts of expansion in wood energy consumption. Journal of Forest Economics 17(2):142-156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfe.2011.02.007
37. Jacobson, S. K., and M. D. Duff. 1998. Training idiot savants: the lack of human dimensions in conservation biology. Conservation Biology 12(2):263-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.97235. x
38. Jakes, P. J., L. Kruger, M. Monroe, K. Nelson, and V. Sturtevant. 2007. Improving wildfire preparedness: lessons from communities across the U.S. Human Ecology Review 14(2):182-191.
39. Janssen, M. A., Ö. Bodin, J. M. Anderies, T. Elmqvist, H. Ernstson, R. R. J. McAllister, P. Olsson, and P. Ryan. 2006. Toward a network perspective on the resilience of socialecological systems. Ecology and Society 11(1): 15. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art15/.
40. Joshi, S., and K. G. Arano. 2009. Determinants of private forest management decisions: a study on West Virginia NIPF landowners. Forest Policy and Economics 11(2):118-125. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2008.10.005
41. Keane, R. E., J. K. Agee, P. Fulé, J. E. Keeley, C. Key, S. G. Kitchen, R. Miller, and L. A. Schulte. 2008. Ecological effects of large fires on US landscapes: benefit or catastrophe? International Journal of Wildland Fire 17(6):696-712. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ WF07148
42. Keane, R. E., and E. Karau. 2010. Evaluating the ecological benefits of wildfire by integrating fire and ecosystem simulation models. Ecological Modelling 221(8):1162-1172. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.01.008
43. Keane, R. E., K. C. Ryan, T. T. Veblen, C. D. Allen, J. Logan, and B. Hawkes. 2002. Cascading effects of fire exclusion in Rocky Mountain ecosystems: a literature review. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-91. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. [online] URL: http://www. fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr091.html.
44. Klügl, F. 2008. A validation methodology for agent-based simulations. Pages 39-43 in L. M. Liebrock, editor. SAC '08: Proceedings of the 2008 ACM symposium on applied computing. ACM, New York, New York, USA. http://dx.doi. org/10.1145/1363686.1363696
45. Kyle, G. T., G. L. Theodori, J. D. Absher, and J. Jun. 2010. The influence of home and community attachment on firewise behavior. Society and Natural Resources 23(11):1075-1092. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920902724974
46. Lambin E. F., B. L. Turner, H. J. Giest, S. B. Agbola, A. Angelsen, J. W. Bruce, O. T. Coomes, R. Dirzo, G. Fischer, C. Folke, P. S. George, K. Homewood, J. Imbernon, R. Leemans, X. Li, E. F. Moran, M. Mortimore, P. S. Ramakrishnan, J. F. Richards, H. Skånes, W. Steffen, G. D. Stone, U. Svedin, T. A. Veldkamp, C. Vogel, and J. Xu. 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environmental Change 11(4):261-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00007-3
47. Lindenmayer, D. B., W. Blanchard, L. McBurney, D. Blair, S. Banks, G. E. Likens, J. F. Franklin, W. F. Laurance, J. A. R. Stein, and P. Gibbons. 2012. Interacting factors driving a major loss of large trees with cavities in a forest ecosystem. PLoS One 7(10): e41864. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0041864
48. Lindenmayer, D. B., R. J. Hobbs, G. E. Likens, C. J. Krebs, and S. C. Banks. 2011. Newly discovered landscape traps produce regime shifts in wet forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(38):15887-15891. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.1110245108
49. Littell, J. S., D. McKenzie, D. L. Peterson, and A. L. Westerling. 2009. Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916-2003. Ecological Applications 19(4):1003-1021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/07-1183.1
50. Littell, J. S., E. E. Oneil, D. McKenzie, J. A. Hicke, J. A. Lutz, R. A. Norheim, and M. M. Elsner. 2010. Forest ecosystems, disturbance, and climatic change in Washington State, USA. Climatic Change 102(1-2):129-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10584-010-9858-x
51. Liu, J., T. Dietz, S. R. Carpenter, M. Alberti, C. Folke, E. Moran, A. N. Pell, P. Deadman, T. Kratz, J. Lubchenco, E. Ostrom, Z. Ouyang, W. Provencher, C. L. Redman, S. H. Schneider, and W. W. Taylor. 2007. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317(5844):1513-1516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/ science.1144004
52. Manson, S. M. 2001. Simplifying complexity: a review of complexity theory. Geoforum 32(3):405-414. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0016-7185(00)00035-X
53. Marlon, J. R., P. J. Bartlein, D. G. Gavin, C. J. Long, R. S. Anderson, C. E. Briles, K. J. Brown, D. Colombaroli, D. J. Hallett, M. J. Power, E. A. Scharf, and M. K. Walsh. 2012. Long-term perspective on wildfires in the western USA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(9):E535-E543. http://dx.doi. org/10.1073/pnas.1112839109
54. McCaffrey, S. 2004. Thinking of wildfire as a natural hazard. Society and Natural Resources 17(6):509-516. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/08941920490452445
55. McGee, T. K., B. L. McFarlane, and J. Varghese. 2009. An examination of the influence of hazard experience on wildfire risk perceptions and adoption of mitigation measures. Society and Natural Resources 22(4):308-323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920801910765
56. McWethy, D. B., P. E. Higuera, C. Whitlock, T. T. Veblen, D. M. J. S. Bowman, G. J. Cary, S. G. Haberle, R. E. Keane, B. D. Maxwell, M. S. McGlone, G. L. W. Perry, J. M. Wilmshurst, A. Holz, and A. J. Teply. 2013. A conceptual framework for predicting temperate ecosystem sensitivity to human impacts on fire regimes. Global Ecology and Biogeography 22(8):900-912. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/geb.12038
57. Merschel, A. G., T. A. Spies, and E. K. Heyerdahl. 2014. Mixed conifer forests in central Oregon: effects of logging and fire exclusion vary with environment. Ecological Applications, in press.
58. Miller, J. D., H. D. Safford, M. Crimmins, and A. E. Thode. 2009. Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Mountains, California and Nevada, USA. Ecosystems 12(1):16-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10021-008-9201-9
59. Millington, J., R. Romero-Calcerrada, J. Wainwright, and G. Perry. 2008. An agent-based model of Mediterranean agricultural land-use/cover change for examining wildfire risk. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation 11(4): 4. [online] URL: http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/11/4/4.html.
60. Moritz, M. A., M.-A. Parisien, E. Battlori, M. A. Krawchuk, J. Van Dorn, D. J. Ganz, and K. Hayhoe. 2012. Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity. Ecosphere 3(6): art49. http://dx. doi.org/10.1890/ES11-00345.1
61. Nelson, K. C., M. C. Monroe, and J. F. Johnson. 2005. The look of the land: homeowner landscape management and wildfire preparedness in Minnesota and Florida. Society and Natural Resources 18(4):321-336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920590915233
62. Nelson, K. C., M. C. Monroe, J. F. Johnson, and A. Bowers. 2004. Living with fire: homeowner assessment of landscape values and defensible space in Minnesota and Florida, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 13(4):413-425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ WF03067
63. Noss, R. F., J. F. Franklin, W. L. Baker, T. Schoennagel, and P. B. Moyle. 2006. Managing fire-prone forests in the western United States. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4(9):481-487. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[481:MFFITW]2.0.CO;2
64. O'Connor, C. D., G. M. Garfin, D. A. Falk, and T. W. Swetnam. 2011. Human pyrogeography: a new synergy of fire, climate and people is reshaping ecosystems across the globe. Geography Compass 5(6):329-350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2011.00428. x
65. Oregon Department of Forestry. 2006. Communities at risk: population density. Oregon Department of Forestry, Salem, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: http://www.oregon.gov/DAS/CIO/ GEO/pages/alphalist.aspx.
66. Oregon Department of Forestry. 2012. Log price information- domestically processed logs. Oregon Department of Forestry, Salem, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: http://www.oregon.gov/odf/ STATE_FORESTS/TIMBER_SALES/Yearly-Pond-Values-2012. xls.
67. Oregon Forest Resources Institute. 2012. The 2012 forest report: an economic assessment of Oregon's forest and wood products manufacturing sector. Oregon Forest Resources Institute, Portland, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: www.theforestreport.org/ downloads/2012_Forest_Report.pdf.
68. Pelling, M., and C. High. 2005. Understanding adaptation: What can social capital offer assessments of adaptive capacity? Global Environmental Change 15(4):308-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.gloenvcha.2005.02.001
69. Perry, G. L. W., J. M. Wilmshurst, M. S. McGlone, D. B. McWethy, and C. Whitlock. 2012. Explaining fire-driven landscape transformation during the Initial Burning Period of New Zealand's prehistory. Global Change Biology 18(5):1609-1621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02631.x
70. Pickett, S. T. A., M. L. Cadenasso, and J. M. Grove. 2005. Biocomplexity in coupled natural-human systems: a multidimensional framework. Ecosystems 8(3):225-232. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10021-004-0098-7
71. Pyne, S. J. 2008. Spark and sprawl: a world tour. Forest History Today Fall 2008:4-11. [online] URL: http://www.foresthistory. org/publications/FHT/FHTFall2008/Pyne.pdf.
72. Pyne, S. J. 2010. America's fires: a historical context for policy and practice. Forest History Society, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
73. Robbins, W. G. 1997. Landscapes of promise: the Oregon story, 1800-1940. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA.
74. Schoennagel, T., T. T. Veblen, and W. H. Romme. 2004. The interaction of fire, fuels, and climate across Rocky Mountain forests. BioScience 54(7):661-676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568 (2004)054[0661:TIOFFA]2.0.CO;2
75. Scoones, I. 1999. New ecology and the social sciences: what prospects for a fruitful engagement? Annual Review of Anthropology 28:479-507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev. anthro.28.1.479
76. Skidmore, M., and H. Toya. 2002. Do natural disasters promote long-run growth? Economic Inquiry 40(4):664-687. http://dx.doi. org/10.1093/ei/40.4.664
77. Spies, T. A., M. A. Hemstrom, A. Youngblood, and S. Hummel. 2006. Conserving old-growth forest diversity in disturbanceprone landscapes. Conservation Biology 20(2):351-362. http://dx. doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00389.x
78. Spies, T. A., D. B. Lindenmayer, A. M. Gill, S. L. Stephens, and J. K. Agee. 2012. Challenges and a checklist for biodiversity conservation in fire-prone forests: perspectives from the Pacific Northwest of USA and southeastern Australia. Biological Conservation 145(1):5-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.008
79. Steelman, T. A., and C. A. Burke. 2007. Is wildfire policy in the United States sustainable? Journal of Forestry 105(2):67-72.
80. Steelman, T. A., G. Kunkel, and D. Bell. 2004. Federal and state influence on community responses to wildfire threats: Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. Journal of Forestry 102(6):21-27.
81. Steelman, T. A., and S. McCaffrey. 2013. Best practices in risk and crisis communication: implications for natural hazards management. Natural Hazards 65(1):683-705. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s11069-012-0386-z
82. Thompson, J. R., and T. A. Spies. 2009. Vegetation and weather explain variation in crown damage within a large mixed-severity wildfire. Forest Ecology and Management 258(7):1684-1694. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.07.031
83. Turner, B. L. II, R. E. Kasperson, P. A. Matson, J. J. McCarthy, R. W. Corell, L. Christensen, N. Eckley, J. X. Kasperson, A. Luers, M. L. Martello, C. Polsky, A. Pulsipher, and A. Schiller. 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (14):8074-8079. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1231335100
84. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. 2005. B & B Fire Recovery Project: Record of Decision. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Sisters, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/7103/ B%26B_Fire_Recovery_Project_ROD.pdf?sequence=1.
85. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service and U.S. Geological Survey. 2009. Monitoring trends in burn severity. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service and U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., USA. [online] URL: http://www.mtbs. gov/index.html.
86. Westerling, A. L., H. G. Hidalgo, D. R. Cayan, and T. W. Swetnam. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increase western U. S. forest wildfire activity. Science 313:940-943. http://dx.doi. org/10.1126/science.1128834
87. White, E. M. 2010. Woody biomass for bioenergy and biofuels in the United States-a briefing paper. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-825. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon, USA. [online] URL: http://www.fsl.orst.edu/lulcd/Publicationsalpha_files/ White_pnw_gtr825.pdf.
88. White, E. M., G. Latta, R. J. Alig, K. E. Skog, and D. M. Adams. 2013. Biomass production from the U.S. forest and agriculture sectors in support of a renewable electricity standard. Energy Policy 58:64-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.02.029
89. White, E. M., A. T. Morzillo, and R. J. Alig. 2009. Past and projected rural land conversion in the US at state, regional, and national levels. Landscape and Urban Planning 89(1-2):37-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2008.09.004
90. Winkler, R., D. R. Field, A. E. Luloff, R. S. Krannich, and T. Williams. 2007. Social landscapes of the Inter-mountain West: a comparison of 'Old West' and 'New West' communities. Rural Sociology 72(3):478-501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1526/003601107781799281
91. Winter, G., and J. S. Fried. 2000. Homeowner perspectives on fire hazard, responsibility, and management strategies at the wildland-urban interface. Society and Natural Resources 13 (1):33-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/089419200279225