Geophysical methods for monitoring temperature changes in shallow low enthalpy geothermal systems

Energies

Volumn 7, Issue 8, 2014, Pages 5083-5118

  Hermans, Thomas ^a,e   Nguyen, Fre´de´ric ^a   Robert, Tanguy ^b   Revil, Andre ^c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIÈGE   (Belgium)

^b R and D Department   (Belgium)

^c Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITÉ DE SAVOIE   (France)

^e FNRS   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Distributed temperature sensing; Electrical resistivity tomography; Self potential method; Temperature monitoring

Indexed keywords

DIGITAL STORAGE; ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY; ENTHALPY; GEOPHYSICS; GEOTHERMAL FIELDS; GROUNDWATER; GROUNDWATER FLOW; TEMPERATURE SENSORS; THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY;

DISTRIBUTED TEMPERATURE SENSING; ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY; LOW ENTHALPY GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM; MONITORING AND CONTROLLING; PETROPHYSICAL RELATIONSHIP; QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION; SELF-POTENTIAL METHOD; TEMPERATURE MONITORING;

GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS;

EID: 84906898034     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19961073     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/en7085083     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Bayer, P.; Rybach, L.; Blum, P.; Brauchler, R. Review on life cycle environmental effects of geothermal power generation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 26, 446-463.
2. Saner, D.; Juraske, R.; Ku¨bert, M.; Blum, P.; Hellweg, S.; Bayer, P. Is it only CO2 that matters? A life cycle perspective on shallow geothermal systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14, 1798-1813.
3. Andersson, O. ATES utilization in Sweden-An overview. In Proceedings of the MEGASTOCK'97 7th International Conference on Thermal Energy Storage, Sapporo, Japan, 18-20 June 1997; pp. 925-930.
4. Vanhoudt, D.; Desmedt, J.; van Bael, J.; Robeyn, N.; Hoes, H. An aquifer thermal storage system in a Belgian hospital: Long-term experimental evaluation of energy and cost savings. Energy Build. 2011, 43, 3657-3665.
5. Blum, P.; Campillo, G.; Ko¨lbel, T. Techno-economic and spatial analysis of vertical ground source heat pump systems in Germany. Energy 2011, 36, 3002-3011.
6. Haehnlein, S.; Bayer, P.; Ferguson, G.; Blum, P. Sustainability and policy for the thermal use of shallow geothermal energy. Energy Policy 2013, 59, 914-925.
7. Lund, J.W. Direct utilization of geothermal energy. Energies 2010, 3, 1443-1471.
8. European Commission. Horizon 2020: The EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation. Secure, Clean and Efficient Energy. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/ horizon2020/en/h2020-section/secure-clean-and-efficient-energy (accessed on 11 August 2014).
9. Lund, J.W.; Freeston, D.H.; Boyd, T.L. Direct application of geothermal energy: 2005 worldwide review. Geothermics 2005, 34, 691-727.
10. Allen, A.; Milenic, D. Low-enthalpy geothermal energy resources from groundwater in fluvioglacial gravels of buried valleys. Appl. Energy 2003, 74, 9-19.
11. Haehnlein, S.; Bayer, P.; Blum, P. International legal status of the use of shallow geothermal energy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14, 2611-2625.
12. Mattsson, N.; Steinmann, G.; Laloui, L. Advanced compact device for the in situ determination of geothermal characteristics of soils. Energy Build. 2008, 40, 1344-1352.
13. Raymond, J.; Therrien, R.; Gosselin, L.; Lefebvre, R. A review of thermal response test analysis using pumping test concepts. Groundwater 2011, 49, 932-945.
14. Haffen, S.; Geraud, Y.; Diraison, M.; Dezayes, C. Determination of fluid-flow zones in a geothermal sandstone reservoir using thermal conductivity and temperature logs. Geothermics 2013, 46, 32-41.
15. Busby, J.; Lewis, M.; Reeves, H.; Lawley, R. Initial geological considerations before installing ground source heat pump systems. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 2009, 42, 295-306.
16. De Paly, M.; Hecht-Me´ndez, J.; Beck, M.; Blum, P.; Zell, A.; Bayer, P. Optimization of energy extraction for closed shallow geothermal systems using linear programming. Geothermics 2012, 43, 57-65.
17. Liang, J.; Yang, Q.; Liu, L.; Li, X. Modeling and performance evaluation of shallow ground water heat pumps in Beijing plain, China. Energy Build. 2011, 43, 3131-3138.
18. Lo Russo, S.; Civita, M.V. Open-loop groundwater heat pumps development for large buildings: A case study. Geothermics 2009, 38, 335-345.
19. Molson, J.W.; Frind, E.O.; Palmer, C.D. Thermal energy storage in an unconfined aquifer: 2. Model development, validation and application. Water Resour. Res. 1992, 28, 2857-2867.
20. Palmer, C.D.; Blowes, D.W.; Frind, E.O.; Molson, J.W. Thermal energy storage in an unconfined aquifer: 1. Field injection experiment. Water Resour. Res. 1992, 28, 2845-2866.
21. Warner, D.L.; Algan, U. Thermal impact of residential ground-water heat pumps. Groundwater 1984, 22, 6-12.
22. Bonte, M. Impacts of Shallow Geothermal Energy Storage on Groundwater Quality-A Hydrochemical and Hydromicrobial Study of the Effects of Ground Source Heat Pumps and Aquifer Thermal Storage. Ph.D. Thesis, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013.
23. Garnier, F. Contribution a` l'e´valuation Bioge´ochimique des Impacts lie´s a` l'exploitation Ge´othermique des Aquife`res Superficiels: Expe´rimentations et Simulations a` l'e´chelle d'un Pilote et d'installations Re´elles. Ph.D. Thesis, Bureau de Recherche Ge´ologique et Minie`re-Institut des Sciences de la Terre d'Orle´ans, Universite´ d'Orle´ans, Orle´ans, France, 2012. (In French)
24. Jesußek, A.; Grandel, S.; Dahmke, A. Impacts of subsurface heat storage on aquifer hydrogeochemistry. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 69, 1999-2012.
25. Brielmann, H.; Griebler, C.; Schmidt, S.I.; Michel, R.; Lueders, T. Effects of thermal energy discharge on shallow groundwater ecosystems. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2009, 68, 273-286.
26. Lerm, S.; Westphal, A.; Miethling-Graff, R.; Alawi, M.; Seibt, A.; Wolfgramm, M.; Wu¨rdemann, H. Thermal effects on microbial composition and microbiologically induced corrosion and mineral precipitation affecting operation of a geothermal plant in a deep saline aquifer. Extremophiles 2013, 17, 311-327.
27. Vetter, A.; Mangelsdorf, K.; Wolfgramm, M.; Rauppach, K.; Schettler, G.; Vieth-Hillebrand, A. Variations in fluid chemistry and membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition of the bacterial community in a cold storage groundwater system during clogging events. Appl. Geochem. 2012, 27, 1278-1290.
28. Lo Russo, S.; Gnavia, L.; Roccia, E.; Taddia, G.; Verda, V. Groundwater Heat Pump (GWHP) system modeling and Thermal Affected Zone (TAZ) prediction reliability: Influence of temporal variations in flow discharge and injection temperature. Geothermics 2014, 51, 103-112.
29. Lo Russo, S.; Taddia, G.; Verda, V. Development of the thermally affected zone (TAZ) around a groundwater heat pump (GWHP) system: A sensitivity analysis. Geothermics 2012, 43, 66-74.
30. Gao, Q.; Zhou, X.-Z.; Jiang, Y.; Chen, X.-L.; Yan, Y.-Y. Numerical simulation of the thermal interaction between pumping and injecting well groups. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2013, 51, 10-19.
31. Milnes, E.; Perrochet, P. Assessing the impact of thermal feedback and recycling in open-loop groundwater heat pump (GWHP) systems: A complementary design tool. Hydrogeol. J. 2013, 21, 505-514.
32. Anderson, M.P. Heat as a ground water tracer. Groundwater 2005, 43, 951-968.
33. Wikdemeersch, S.; Jamin, P.; Orban, P.; Hermans, T.; Nguyen, F.; Brouye`re, S.; Dassargues, A. Coupling heat and chemical tracer experiments for estimating heat transfer parameters in shallow alluvial aquifers. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2014, submitted.
34. Saar, M.O. Review: Geothermal heat as a tracer of large-scale groundwater flow and as a means to determine permeability fields. Hydrogeol. J. 2011, 19, 31-52.
35. Giambastiani, B.M.S.; Colombanii, N.; Mastrocicco, M. Limitation of using heat as a groundwater tracer to define aquifer properties: Experiment in a large tank model. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 70, 719-728.
36. Vandenbohede, A.; Hermans, T.; Nguyen, F.; Lebbe, L. Shallow heat injection and storage experiment: Heat transport simulation and sensitivity analysis. J. Hydrol. 2011, 409, 262-272.
37. Vandenbohede, A.; Louwyck, A.; Lebbe, L. Conservative solute versus heat transport in porous media during push-pull tests. Transp. Porous Med. 2009, 76, 265-287.
38. Brouye`re, S. Etude et Mode´lisation du Transport et du Pie´geage des Solute´s en Milieu Souterrain Variablement Sature´. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium, 2001. (In French)
39. Jardani, A.; Revil, A.; Dupont, J.P. Stochastic joint inversion of hydrogeophysical data for salt tracer test monitoring and hydraulic conductivity imaging. Adv. Water Resour. 2013, 52, 62-77.
40. Hayley, K.; Bentley, L.R.; Gharibi, M.; Nightingale, M. Low temperature dependence of electrical resistivity: Implications for near surface geophysical monitoring. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34, doi:10.1029/2007GL031124.
41. Revil, A.; Cathles, L.M.; Losh, S.; Nunn, J.A. Electrical conductivity in shaly sands with geophysical applications. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103, 23925-23936.
42. Waxman, M.H.; Smits, L.J.M. Electrical conductivities in oil-bearing shaly sands. Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 1968, 8, 107-122.
43. Vereecken, H.; Binley, A.; Cassiani, G.; Revil, A.; Titov, K. Applied Hydrogeophysics. NATO Science Series: IV Earth and Environmental Sciences; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2006.
44. Hermans, T.; Vandenbohede, A.; Lebbe, L.; Martin, R.; Kemna, A.; Beaujean, J.; Nguyen, F. Imaging artificial salt water infiltration using electrical resistivity tomography constrained by geostatistical data. J. Hydrol. 2012, 438-439, 168-180.
45. Nguyen, F.; Kemna, A.; Antonsson, A.; Engesgaard, P.; Kuras, O.; Ogilvy, R.; Gisbert, J.; Jorreto, S.; Pulido-Bosch, A. Characterization of seawater intrusion using 2D electrical imaging. Near Surf. Geophys. 2009, 7, 377-390.
46. Binley, A.; Winship, P.; West, L.J.; Pokar, M.; Middleton, R. Seasonal variation of moisture content in unsaturated sandstone inferred from borehole radar and resistivity profiles. J. Hydrol. 2002, 267, 160-172.
47. Chambers, J.E.; Gunn, D.A.; Wilkinson, P.B.; Meldrum, P.I.; Haslam, E.; Holyoake, S.; Kirkham, M.; Kuras, O.; Merrit, A.; Wragg, J. 4D electrical resistivity tomography monitoring of soil moisture dynamics in an operational railway embankment. Near Surf. Geophys. 2014, 12, 61-72.
48. Atekwana, E.A.; Sauck, W.A.; Werkema, D.D., Jr. Investigations of geoelectrical signatures at a hydrocarbon contaminated site. J. Appl. Geophys. 2000, 44, 167-180.
49. Chambers, J.E.; Wilkinson, P.B.; Wealthall, G.P.; Loke, M.H.; Dearden, R.; Wilson, R.; Allen, D.; Ogilvy, R.D. Hydrogeophysical imaging of deposit heterogeneity and groundwater chemistry changes during DNAPL source zone bioremediation. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2010, 118, 43-61.
50. Kemna, A.; Kulessa, B.; Vereecken, H. Imaging and characterization of subsurface solute transport using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and equivalent transport models. J. Hydrol. 2002, 267, 125-146.
51. Robert, T.; Caterina, D.; Deceuster, J.; Kaufmann, O.; Nguyen, F. A salt tracer test monitored with surface ERT to detect preferential flow and transport paths in fractured/karstified limestones. Geophysics 2012, 77, B55-B67.
52. Scho¨n, J.H. Physical Properties of Rocks, Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics. In Handbook of Geophysical Exploration, Seismic Exploration; Helbig, K., Treitel, S., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2004; Volume 18, pp. 1-600.
53. Revil, A.; Karaoulis, M.; Johnson, T.; Kemna, A. Review: Some low-frequency electrical methods for subsurface characterization and monitoring in hydrogeology. Hydrogeol. J. 2012, 20, 617-658.
54. Binley, A.; Kemna, A. DC resistivity and induced polarization methods. In Hydrogeophysics; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2005; pp. 129-156.
55. Hermans, T.; Wildemeersch, S.; Jamin, P.; Orban, P.; Brouye`re, S.; Dassargues, A.; Nguyen, F. Quantitative temperature monitoring of a heat tracing experiment using cross-borehole ERT. Geothermics 2015, 53, 14-26.
56. Tikhonov, A.N.; Arsenin, V.A. Solution of Ill-Posed Problems; Winston & Sons: Washington, DC, USA, 1977.
57. Sen, P.N.; Goode, P.A. Influence of temperature on electrical conductivity on shaly sands. Geophysics 1992, 46, 781-795.
58. Hayley, K.; Bentley, L.R.; Pidlisecky, A. Compensating for temperature variations in time-lapse electrical resistivity difference imaging. Geophysics 2010, 75, WA51-WA59.
59. Ma, R.; McBratney, A.; Whelan, B.; Minasny, B.; Short, M. Comparing temperature correction models for soil electrical conductivity measurement. Precis. Agric. 2011, 12, 55-66.
60. Sherrod, L.; Sauck, W.; Werkema, D.D., Jr. A low-cost, in-situ resistivity and temperature monitoring system. Ground Water Monit. Remediat. 2012, 32, 31-39.
61. Loke, M.H.; Dahlin, T.; Rucker, D.F. Smoothness-constrained time-lapse inversion of data from 3D resistivity survey. Near Surf. Geophys. 2014, 12, 5-24.
62. Miller, C.; Routh, P.; Brosten, T.; McNamara, J. Application of time-lapse ERT imaging to watershed characterization. Geophysics 2008, 73, G7-G17.
63. Daily, W.; Ramirez, A.; LaBrecque, D.; Nitao, J. Electrical resistivity tomography of vadose water movement. Water Resour. Res. 1992, 28, 1429-1442.
64. LaBrecque, D.J.; Yang, X. Difference inversion of ERT data: A fast inversion method for 3-D in-situ monitoring. J. Environ. Eng. Geophys. 2001, 6, 83-90.
65. Nguyen, F.; Hermans, T.; Robert, T. Minimum gradient support and geostatistics regularization approaches for inverting time-lapse data. In Proceedings of 2nd International Workshop on Geoelectrical Monitoring, Vienna, Austria, 4-6 December 2013.
66. Karaoulis, M.; Tsourlos, P.; Kim, J.-H.; Revil, A. 4D time-lapse ERT inversion: Introducing combined time and space constraints. Near Surf. Geophys. 2014, 12, 25-34.
67. Karaoulis, M.C.; Kim, J.H.; Tsourlos, P.I. 4D active time constrained resistivity inversion. J. Appl. Geophys. 2011, 73, 25-34.
68. Revil, A.; Skold, M.; Karaoulis, M.; Schmutz, M.; Hubbard, S.S.; Mehlhorn, T.L.; Watson, D.B. Hydrogeophysical investigations of the former S-3 ponds contaminant plumes, Oak Ridge Integrated Field Research Challenge site, Tennessee. Geophysics 2013, 78, EN29-EN41.
69. Pidlisecky, A.; Haber, E.; Knight, R. RESINVM3D: A 3D resistivity inversion package. Geophysics 2007, 72, H1-H10.
70. Kemna, A. Tomographic Inversion of Complex Resistivity: Theory and Application. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany, 2000.
71. Nimmer, R.E.; Osiensky, J.L.; Binley, A.M.; Williams, B.C. Three-dimensional effects causing artifacts in two-dimensional, cross-borehole, electrical imaging. J. Hydrol. 2008, 359, 59-70.
72. Vandenborght, J.; Kemna, A.; Hardelauf, H.; Vereecken, H. Potential of electrical resistivity tomography to infer aquifer transport characteristics from tracer studies: A synthetic case study. Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41, doi:10.1029/2004WR003774.
73. LaBrecque, D.J.; Miletto, M.; Daily, W.; Ramirez, A.; Owen, E. The effects of noise on Occam's inversion of resistivity tomography data. Geophysics 1996, 61, 538-548.
74. Hermans, T.; Vandenbohede, A.; Lebbe, L.; Nguyen, F. A shallow geothermal experiment in a sandy aquifer monitored using electric resistivity tomography. Geophysics 2012, 77, B11-B21.
75. Irving, J.; Singha, K. Stochastic inversion of tracer test and electrical geophysical data to estimate hydraulic conductivities. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46, doi:10.1029/2009WR008340.
76. Kowalsky, M.B.; Finsterle, S.; Peterson, J.; Hubbard, S.; Rubin, Y.; Majer, E.; Ward, A.; Gee, G. Estimation of field-scale soil hydraulic and dielectric parameters through joint inversion of GPR and hydrological data. Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41, doi:10.1029/2005WR004237.
77. Loke, M.H.; Acworth, I.; Dahlin, T. A comparison of smooth and blocky inversion methods in 2D electrical imaging surveys. Explor. Geophys. 2003, 34, 182-187.
78. Blaschek, R.; Ho¨rdt, A.; Kemna, A. A new sensitivity-controlled focusing regularization scheme for the inversion of induced polarization based on the minimum gradient support. Geophysics 2008, 73, F45-F54.
79. Doetsch, J.; Linde, N.; Pessognelli, M.; Green, A.G.; Gu¨nther, T. Constraining 3-D electrical resistance tomography with GPR reflection data for improved aquifer characterization. J. Appl. Geophys. 2012, 78, 68-76.
80. Zhou, J.; Revil, A.; Karaoulis, M.; Hale, D.; Doetsch, J.; Cuttler, S. Image-guided inversion of electrical resistivity data. Geophys. J. Int. 2014, 197, 292-309.
81. Caterina, D.; Hermans, T.; Nguyen, F. Case studies of prior information in electrical resistivity tomography: Comparison of different approaches. Near Surf. Geophys. 2014, 12, 451-465.
82. Kyriakidis, P.C.; Journel, A.G. Geostatistical space-time models: A review. Math. Geol. 1999, 31, 651-684.
83. Revil, A. Effective conductivity and permittivity of unsaturated porous materials in the frequency range 1 mHz-1 GHz. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 306-327.
84. Revil, A.; Schwaeger, H.; Cathles, L.M.; Manhardt, P.D. Streaming potential in porous media: 2. Theory and application to geothermal systems. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104, 20033-20048.
85. Archie, G.E. The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics. Trans. AIME 1942, 146, 54-62.
86. Revil, A. On charge accumulations in heterogeneous porous materials under the influence of an electrical field. Geophysics 2013, 78, D271-D291.
87. Sorensen, J.A.; Glass, G.E. Ion and temperature dependence of electrical conductance for natural waters. Anal. Chem. 1987, 59, 1594-1597.
88. Jardani, A.; Revil, A.; Bole`ve, A.; Dupont, J.P.; Barrash, W.; Malama, B. Tomography of groundwater flow from self-potential (SP) data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33, doi:10.1029/2006GL027458
89. Revil, A.; Mahardika, H. Coupled hydromechanical and electromagnetic disturbances in unsaturated clayey materials. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 744-766
90. Leinov, E.; Vinogradov, J.; Jackson, M.D. Salinity dependence of the thermoelectric coupling coefficient in brine-saturated sandstones. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37, doi:10.1029/2010GL045379.
91. Revil, A.; Karaoulis, M.; Srivastava, S.; Byrdina, S. Thermoelectric self-potential and resistivity data localize the burning front of underground coal fires. Geophysics 2013, 78, B259-B273
92. Sill, W.R. Self-potential modeling from primary flows. Geophysics 1983, 48, 76-86.
93. Ikard, S.J.; Revil, A. Self-potential monitoring of a thermal pulse advecting through a preferential flow path. J. Hydrol. 2014, 2014, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.07.001.
94. Selker, J.S.; The´venaz, L.; Huwald, H.; Mallet, A.; Luxemburg, W.; van de Giesen, N.; Stejskal, M.; Zeman, J.; Westhoff, M.; Parlange, M.B. Distributed fiber-optic temperature sensing for hydrologic systems. Water Resour. Res. 2006, 42, doi:10.1029/2006WR005326.
95. Yilmaz, G.; Karlik, S.E. A distributed optical fiber sensor for temperature detection in power cables. Sens. Actuators A 2006, 125, 148-155.
96. Tyler, S.W.; Selker, J.S.; Hausner, M.B.; Hatch, C.E.; Torgersen, T.; Thodal, C.E.; Schladow, S.G. Environmental temperature sensing using Raman spectra DTS fiber-optic methods. Water Resour. Res. 2009, 45, doi:10.1029/2008WR007052.
97. Arango-Galva´n, C.; Prol-Ledesma, R.M.; Flores-Ma´rquez, E.L.; Canet, C.; Villanueva Estrada, R.E. Shallow submarine and subaerial, low-enthalpy hydrothermal manifestations on Punta Banda, Baja California, Mexico: Geophysical and geochemical characterization. Geothermics 2011, 40, 102-111.
98. Bruno, P.P.G.; Paoletti, V.; Grimaldi, M.; Rapolla, A. Geophysical exploration for geothermal low enthalpy resources in Lipari Island, Italy. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 2000, 98, 173-188.
99. Garg, S.K.; Pritchett, J.W.; Wannamaker, P.E.; Combs, J. Characterization of geothermal reservoirs with electrical surveys: Beowave geothermal field. Geothermics 2007, 36, 487-517.
100. Pe´rez Flores, M.A.; Gomez Trevino, E. Dipole-dipole resistivity imaging of the Ahuachapan-Chipilapa geothermal field, El Salvador. Geothermics 1997, 26, 657-680.
101. Revil, A.; Finizola, A.; Ricci, T.; Delcher, E.; Peltier, A.; Barde-Cabusson, S.; Avard, G.; Bailly, T.; Bennati, L.; Byrdina, S.; et al. Hydrogeology of Stromboli volcano, Aeolian Islands (Italy) from the interpretation of resistivity tomograms, self-potential, soil temperature and soil CO2 concentration measurements. Geophys. J. Int. 2011, 186, 1078-1094.
102. Revil, A.; Johnson, T.C.; Finizola, A. Three-dimensional resistivity tomography of Vulcan's forge, Vulcano Island, southern Italy. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37, doi:10.1029/2010GL043983.
103. Benderitter, Y.; Tabbagh, J. Heat storage in a shallow confined aquifer: Geophysical tests to detect the resulting anomaly and its evolution with time. J. Hydrol. 1982, 56, 85-98.
104. Ramirez, A.; Daily, W.; LaBrecque, D.; Owen, E.; Chesnut, D. Monitoring an underground steam injection process using electrical resistance tomography. Water Resour. Res. 1993, 29, 73-87.
105. Ramirez, A.; Chesnut, D.A.; Daily, W.D. Using Electrical Resistance Tomography to Map Subsurface Temperatures. U.S. Patent US5346307 A, 3 June 1993
106. LaBrecque, D.J.; Ramirez, A.L.; Daily, W.D.; Binley, A.M.; Schima, S.A. ERT monitoring of environmental remediation processes. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1996, 7, 375-383.
107. Mu¨ller, K.; Vanderborght, J.; Englert, A.; Kemna, A.; Huisman, J.A.; Rings, J.; Vereecken, H. Imaging and characterization of solute transport during two tracer tests in a shallow aquifer using electrical resistivity tomography and multilevel groundwater samplers. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46, doi:10.1029/2008WR007595.
108. Firmbach, L.; Giordano, N.; Comina, C.; Mandrone, G.; Kolditz, O.; Vienken, T.; Dietrich, P. Experimental heat flow propagation within porous media using electrical resistivity tomography x(ERT). In Proceedings of the European Geothermal Congress 2013, Pisa, Italy, 3-7 June 2013.
109. Supper, R.; Ottowitz, D.; Jochum, B.; Ro¨mer, A.; Pfeiler, S.; Kauer, S.; Keushnig, M.; Ita, A. Geoelctrical monitoring of frozen ground and permafrost in alpine areas: Field studies and considerations towards an improved measuring technology. Near Surf. Geophys. 2014, 12, 93-115.
110. Auken, E.; Doetsch, J.; Fiandaca, G.; Christiansen, A.V.; Gazoty, A.; Cahill, A.G.; Jakobsen, R. Imaging subsurface migration of dissolved CO2 in a shallow aquifer using 3-D time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography. J. Appl. Geophys. 2013, 101, 31-41.
111. Hermans, T.; Daoudi, M.; Vandenbohede, A.; Robert, T.; Caterina, D.; Nguyen, F. Comparison of temperature estimates from heat transport model and electrical resistivity tomography during a shallow heat injection and storage experiment. Ber. Geol. Bundesanst. 2012, 93, 43-48.
112. Robert, T.; Hermans, T.; Dumont, G.; Nguyen, F.; Rwabuhungu, D.E. Reliability of ERT-derived temperature: Insights from laboratory measurements. Near Surf. Geosci. 2013, 2013, doi:10.3997/2214-4609.20131373.
113. Caterina, D.; Beaujean, J.; Robert, T.; Nguyen, F. A comparison study of different image appraisal tools for electrical resistivity tomography. Near Surf. Geophys. 2013, 11, 639-657.
114. Perri, M.T.; Cassiani, G.; Gervasio, I.; Deiana, R.; Binley, A. A saline tracer test monitored via both surface and cross-borehole electrical resistivity tomography: Comparison of time-lapse results. J. Appl. Geophys. 2012, 79, 6-16.
115. Doetsch, J.A.; Coscia, I.; Greenhalgh, S.; Linde, N.; Green, A.; Gu¨nther, T. The borehole-fluid effect in electrical resistivity imaging. Geophysics 2010, 75, F107-F114.
116. Day-Lewis, F.D.; Singha, K.; Binley, A.M. Applying petrophysical models to radar travel time and electrical resistivity tomograms: Resolution-dependent limitations. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 2005, 110, doi:10.1029/2004JB003569.
117. Selker, J.; van de Giesen, N.; Westhoff, M.; Luxemburg, W.; Parlange, M.B. Fiber optics opens window on stream dynamics. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33, doi:10.1029/2006GL027979.
118. Lowry, C.S.; Walker, J.F.; Hunt, R.J.; Anderson, M.P. Identifying spatial variability of groundwater discharge in a wetland stream using a distributed temperature sensor. Water Resour. Res. 2007, 43, doi:10.1029/2007WR006145.
119. Vogt, T.; Schneider, P.; Hahn-Woernle, L.; Cirpka, O.A. Estimation of seepage rates in a losing stream by means of fiber-optic high-resolution vertical temperature profiling. J. Hydrol. 2010, 380, 154-164.
120. Mamer, E.A.; Lowry, C.S. Locating and quantifying spatially distributed groundwater/surface water interactions using temperature signals with paired fiber-optic cables. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 7670-7680.
121. Sebok, E.; Duque, C.; Kazmierczak, J.; Engesgaard, P.; Nilsson, B.; Karan, S.; Frandsen, M. High-resolution distributed temperature sensing to detect seasonal groundwater discharge into Lake Vaeng, Denmark. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 5355-5368.
122. Lauer, F.; Frede, H.-G.; Breuer, L. Uncertainty assessment of quantifying spatially concentrated groundwater discharge to small streams by distributed temperature sensing. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 400-407.
123. Krause, S.; Blume, T. Impact of seasonal variability and monitoring mode on the adequacy of fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing at aquifer-river interfaces. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 2408-2423.
124. Mwakanyamale, K.; Day-Lewis, F.D.; Slater, L.D. Statistical mapping of zones of focused groundwater/surface-water exchange using fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 6979-6984.
125. Blume, T.; Krause, S.; Meinikmann, K.; Lewandowski, J. Upscaling lacustrine groundwater discharge rates by fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 7929-7944.
126. Ciocca, F.; Lunati, I.; van de Giesen, N.; Parlange, M.B. Heated optical fiber for distributed soil-moisture measurements: A lysimeter experiment. Vadose Zone J. 2012, 11, doi:10.2136/vzj2011.0199.
127. Hurtig, E.; Groswig, S.; Jobmann, M.; Kuhn, K.; Marschall, P. Fibre-optic temperature measurements in shallow boreholes: Experimental application for fluid logging. Geothermics 1994, 23, 355-364
128. Macfarlane, A.; Fo¨rster, A.; Merriam, D.; Schro¨tter, J.; Healey, J. Monitoring artificially stimulated fluid movement in the Cretaceous Dakota Aquifer, Western Kansas. Hydrogeol. J. 2002, 10, 662-673.
129. Yamano, M.; Goto, S. Long-term monitoring of the temperature profile in a deep borehole: Temperature variations associated with water injection experiments and natural groundwater discharge. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 2005, 152, 326-334.
130. Leaf, A.T.; Hart, D.J.; Bahr, J.M. Active thermal tracer tests for improved hydrostratigraphic characterization. Groundwater 2012, 50, 726-735.
131. Read, T.; Bour, O.; Bense, V.; le Borgne, T.; Goderniaux, P.; Klepikova, M.V.; Hochreutener, R.; Lavenant, N.; Boschero, V. Characterizing groundwater flow and heat transport in fractured rock using fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40, 1-5.
132. Banks, E.W.; Shanafield, M.A.; Cook, P.G. Induced temperature gradients to examine groundwater flowpaths in open boreholes. Groundwater 2014, 2014, doi:10.1111/gwat.12157.
133. Fujii, H.; Okubo, H.; Itoi, R. Thermal response tests using optical fiber thermometers. Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Trans. 2006, 30, 545-551.
134. Fujii, H.; Okubo, H.; Nishi, K.; Itoi, R.; Ohyama, K.; Shibata, K. An improved thermal response test for U-tube ground heat exchanger based on optical fiber thermometers. Geothermics 2009, 38, 399-406.
135. Acuña, J.; Mogensen, P.; Palm, B. Distributed thermal response test on a U-pipe borehole heat exchanger. In Proceedings of the EFFSTOCK-The 11th International Conference on Energy Storage, Stockholm, Sweden, 14-17 June 2009.
136. Reinsch, T.; Henninges, J.; A´smundsson, R. Thermal, mechanical and chemical influences on the performance of optical fibres for distributed temperature sensing in a hot geothermal well. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 70, 3465-3480.