The price of stability: Kazakhstani control mechanisms under conditions of cultural and demographic bipolarity

Democracy and Pluralism in Muslim Eurasia

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 165-185

  KolstØ, Pål ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84905770009     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203009260     Document Type: Chapter

References (47)

1. R.S. Milne, Politics in Ethnically Bipolar States (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1981);
2. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1985), p. 36ff.
3. Bess Brown, 'Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan on the Road to Democracy', RFE/RL Research Report 48 (4 Dec. 1992), pp. 20-2.
4. Ian Bremmer and Cory Welt, 'The Trouble with Democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey 2 (1996), pp. 179-200.
5. Martha Brill Olcott, 'Kazakhstan: Pushing for Eurasia', in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras (eds), New States, New Politics. Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 549.
6. Zhanna Bulatova and Erik Zhanusov, 'Materiia i idealy (chem 2000 god budet trudnee 1991-go)', Delovaia nedelia (Almaty), 10 April 1998.
7. Bulatova and Zhanusov, 'Materiia i idealy', Delovaia nedeliia, 17 April 1998;
8. Eschment, 'Das Chanat Nazarbayevs', p. 877. The signature lists later mysteriously disappeared.
9. Brown, 'Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan', p. 22. Zheltoksan's program is published in the official information booklet Political Parties and Social Movements in Contemporary Kazakhstan (see n. 4). It states, inter alia, that 'as a consequence of migration into Kazakhstan, the relative weight of the indigenous nationality in the total population has been drastically lowered. As a result, the development of the language and culture of the Kazakh people has been distorted.' Politicheskie partii i obshchestvennye dvizheniia, Vol. 1, p. 78. The program, however, does not offer any clues as to how Zheltoksan proposed going about redressing this situation. By contrast, the program of the Alash party declared that the party was in favour of 'state regulation of migratory processes and the realization of a state policy of repatriation (giving all those who wish to leave Kazakhstan full material compensation, while making it possible for persons belonging to the indigenous population living abroad to move to Kazakhstan.)' Politicheskie partii, Vol. 1, pp. 64-5.
10. K.V. Zhigalov and B.K. Sultanov, Pervyi prezident respubliki Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbaev. Khronika deatel'nosti (1.12.1991-31.5.1993) (Almaty: "Kazakhstan - XXI vek", 1993), p. 230.
11. Robert Kaiser and Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography 5 (1995), pp. 257-73
12. Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity. (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 108-12.
13. Boris Giller and Viktor Shatskikh, 'Russkoiazychnye v Kazakhstane: Opredelenie berega', Karavan (Almaty), 24 Dec. 1993
14. A.B Galiev, E. Babakumarov, Zh. Zhansugurova and A. Peruashev, Mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniia v Kazakhstane. Etnicheskii aspekt kadrovoi politiki (Almaty: Institut razvitiia Kazakhstana, 1994).
15. The only area that for all practical purposes seems to be exempt from kazakhification, is language policy. See e.g. Bhavna Dave, 'National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change', Post-Soviet Affairs 1 (Jan.-March 1996), pp. 51-72;
16. Pål Kolstø and Irina Malkova 'Is Kazakhstan Being Kazakhified?', Analysis of Current Events 11 (Nov. 1997), pp. 1; 3-4. The lack of vigour that characterizes the campaign for linguistic kazakhification, however, should not necessarily be seen as a concession to the russophones. Rather, it expresses the self-interests of the ruling Kazakh élite, which is usually more fluent in Russian than in Kazakh. To give the language campaign real teeth would play directly into the hands of opposition leaders such as Hasen Kozha-Ahmet who hail from the cultural intelligentsia.
17. Pål Kolstø, 'Anticipating Demographic Superiority. Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation-building', Europe-Asia Studies 1 (1998), pp. 61-3.
18. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The Looming Threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times (Jan. 1995), pp. 40-2:
19. Shirin Akiner, The Formation of Kazakh Identity. From Tribe to Nation-State (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 69-74
20. Adam Dixon, 'Kazakhstan: Political Reform and Economic Development', in Allison Roy (ed.), Challenges for the Former Soviet South (New York/London: Brookings Institution Press for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996), p. 113. (Dixon refers to observations made by the British researcher Neil Melvin).
21. 'Kazakhstan: Forced Migration and Nation Building. A Special Report by the Forced Migration Projects', http://www.soor.org/fm2/html/Kazakhstan.html; http://www. soor.org/fm2/html/Kazakhstan.html, p. 1
22. Ronald Eggleston: 'Kazakhstan: OSCE Concerned about Presidential Elections', online at: http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/1999/03/F.RU.9903095819.htm.
23. Bruce Pannier: 'Parliamentary Candidates Complain of Lack of Media Access', online at: http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/1999/10/F.RU.991008131730.html;
24. Bruce Pannier:'Election Battles Waged in Courts, Not Campaigns' online at: http://www. rferl.org/nca/features/1999/08/F.RU.990804135003.html.
25. Eschment, 'Das Chanat Nazarbayevs'
26. Dixon, 'Kazakhstan: Political Reform', pp. 93-103.
27. Kirill Nourzhanov and Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan: Has Something Gone Wrong?', The World Today 12 (1994), pp. 225-9.
28. Zh.Kh. Dzhunusova, Respublika Kazakhstan: Prezident. Instituty Demokratii (Almaty:Zheti Zhargy, 1996), p. 94.
29. 'NEGA soobshchaet: Kazakhstan', Nezavisimaia gazeta, 6 Dec. 1995, p. 3.
30. First of all by Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977). See also chapters by Olimova and Kisriev in this volume, and n. 58.
31. Brian Barry, 'Review Article: Political Accommodation and Consociational Democracy', British Journal of Political Science 4 (1975), pp. 477-505;
32. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups, pp. 571-6. Western political scientists have pointed out that fixed numerical quotas in the parliament and other political institutions in Lebanon was one factor among others leading up to the bloody civil war in 1975-76. The Muslims had been given a quota on the basis of their share of the total population at the time when the arrangement was agreed upon in 1943, and felt they should be entitled to greater representation as this share increased due to their faster population growth. This demand was rejected by the demographic losers, the Maronite Christians. See, e.g.
33. Robert Cooper and Mats Berdal, 'Outside Intervention in Ethnic Conflicts', in Michael E. Brown (ed.), Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 181-205.
34. Nurbulat Masanov, 'Reitingovoe golosovanie v parlamente', in Uregulirovanie etnicheskikh konfliktov v postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh (Moscow: Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, RAN, 1995), pp. 26-8.
35. See also Kolstø, 'Anticipating Demographic Superiority'.
36. Bhavna Dave, 'A New Parliament Consolidates Presidential Authority', Transition 6
37. V.N. Khliupin, 'Bol'shaia sem'ia' Nursultana Nazarbaeva. Politicheskaia elita sovremennogo Kazakhstana (Moscow: Institute of Topical Political Research, 1998), p. 45.
38. Jørn Holm-Hansen, 'Political Integration in Kazakhstan', in Kolstø, Nation-Building and Ethnic Integration, pp. 193-6.
39. N.I. Petrov and M.S. Gafarly, 'Kurs na politicheskuiu stabil'nost' i sotrudnichestvo s sosediami', in Postsovetskaia tsentral'naia Aziia. Poteri i obreteniia (Moscow:Vostochnaia literatura, RAN, 1998), p. 54.
40. R. Sariev, 'Zalog stabil'nosti', Mysl', April 1997, pp. 28-33.
41. Seisen Amirbekuly, 'Chto predstavliaet soboi Assambleia narodov Kazakhstana, organizatsiia, sposobstvuiushchaia druzhbe natsii v respublike, ili instrument politicheskikh igr, ispol'zuemyi prezidentom vo vremia razlichnykh kompanii? [sic]', XXI vek, 4 Sept. 1998, p. 4. As Amirbekuly was writing his article, it seemed as if the president was planning to dust off the Assembly again. Relating to the recent announcement that the next session of the Assembly would be brought forward from December to September 1998, Amirbekuly predicted that the real reason behind this decision was that the president wanted the Assembly to suggest that the presidential elections be brought forward.
42. Pavel Atrushkevich, 'Politikov s chervotochinoi pugaet edinstvo naroda', Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 6 October 1998.
43. N.D. Baitenova, 'Mezhetnicheskaia integratsiia v Kazakhstane: Sostoianie i perspektivy', Saiasat (Almaty) 3 (1995), pp. 27-33.
44. Asen Bisenbaev, 'Politicheskaia zapadnia perekhodnogo perioda', Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 21 Feb. 1997, p. 7.
45. Nursultan Nazarbaev, 'O polozhenii v strane i osnovnykh napravleniiakh vneshnei politiki', Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 1 Jan. 1998.
46. Bruce Pannier, 'Kazakhstan: Convictions of Russian "Separatists" Upset Relations,' online at: http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/2000/06/F.RU.000615145849.html.
47. Pål Kolstø, Political Construction Sites: Nation-Building in Russia and the Post-Soviet States (Boulder, Colorado: Westview press, 2000), 75-9.