Shale gas development: A smart regulation framework

Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 48, Issue 15, 2014, Pages 8404-8416

  Konschnik, Katherine E ^a   Boling, Mark K ^b  

^a HARVARD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

^b Southwestern Energy Company   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUDGET CONTROL; DIRECTIONAL DRILLING; HYDRAULIC FRACTURING; SHALE;

BRAIN DRAIN; BUDGET CUTS; GAS DEVELOPMENT; MITIGATION STRATEGY; POTENTIAL UTILITY; SHALE FORMATION;

SHALE GAS;

METHANE; NATURAL GAS;

ARTICLE; CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; GLOBAL CLIMATE; GOVERNMENT; INDUSTRY; MANAGEMENT THEORY; PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT; RISK ASSESSMENT; SHALE GAS INDUSTRY; UNITED STATES; WASTE MANAGEMENT; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; LEGISLATION AND JURISPRUDENCE; MINING; POLLUTION; RISK;

CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION; EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; NATURAL GAS; RISK; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84905660124     PISSN: 0013936X     EISSN: 15205851     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/es405377u     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. U.S. Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids Proved Reserves, 2007 Annual Report; U.S. Energy Information Administration: Washington, DC, 2009; http://www.eia.gov/naturalgas/crudeoilreserves/archive/2007/full.pdf.
2. U.S. Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids Proved Reserves, 2011; U.S. Energy Information Administration: Washington, DC, 2013; p 12, Table 3, Table 10, Table 14, http://www.eia.gov/naturalgas/crudeoilreserves/pdf/ uscrudeoil.pdf.
3. Annual Energy Outlook, 2012; U.S. Energy Information Administration: Washington DC, 2012; p 61, http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2012).pdf.
4. Technology Drives Natural Gas Production Growth from Shale Gas Formations; United States Energy Information Administration, July 12, 2011; http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=2170.
5. Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States: An Update; National Energy Technology Laboratory, Washington, DC, 2013; http://www.netl.doe.gov/ File%20Library/Research/Oil- Gas/shale-gas-primer-update-2013.pdf.
6. Clark, C. E., Han, J., Burnham, A., Dunn, J. B., Wang, M., Life-Cycle Analysis of Shale Gas and Natural Gas, ANL/ESD/11-11; Argonne National Laboratory, Energy Systems Division: Argonne, IL, 2011; http://www. transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/EE/813.PDF.
7. Krupnick, A., Gordon, H., Olmstead, S. Pathways to Dialogue: What the Experts Say about the Environmental Risks of Shale Gas Development, Resources for the Future; Washington, DC, 2013; http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-Rpt- PathwaystoDialogue-FullReport.pdf.
8. Wilson, E., Kuszewski, J., Shared Value, Shared Responsibility: A New Approach to Managing Contracting Chains in the Oil and Gas Sector; International Institute for Environment and Development, 2011; http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/ 16026IIED.pdf.
9. Electric Power Annual 2013; U.S. Energy Information Administration: Washington, DC, 2013; www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/.
10. Clean Water Act, U.S. Code, Section 1342(l)(2), Title 33.
11. Safe Drinking Water Act, U.S. Code, Section 300h(d)(1)(B), Title 42.
12. Clean Air Act Hazardous Air Pollution Program, U.S. Code, Section 7412(n)(4), Title 42.
13. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases. Fed. Regist. 2009, 74, 56260-56519.
14. Oil and Natural Gas Sector: New Source Performance Standards and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Reviews; Final Rule. Fed. Regist. 2012, 77, 49490-49600.
15. Notice of Final 2010 Effluent Guidelines Program Plan. Fed. Regist. 2011, 76, 66286-66304.
16. Preliminary 2012 Effluent Guidelines Program Plan; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2013; p 5-2-5-32, Figures 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/guide/304m/upload/Preliminary-2012- Effluent-Guidelines-Program-Plan.pdf.
17. Notice of availability of EPA documents regarding implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act's underground injection control program existing requirements for oil and gas hydraulic fracturing activities using diesel fuels. Fed. Regist. 2014, 79, 8451-8452.
18. November 23, 2011 Letter from EPA Assistant Administrator Steven Owens to Deborah Goldberg, EarthJustice, re: TSCA Section 21 Petition Concerning Chemical Substances and Mixtures Used in Oil and Gas Exploration or Production. http://www.epa.gov/oppt/chemtest/pubs/EPA-Letter-to-Earthjustice-on-TSCA- Petition.pdf.
19. Oil and gas: Hydraulic fracturing on federal and indian lands; Proposed rule. Fed. Regist. 2013, 78, 31636-31677.
20. Carriage of conditionally permitted shale gas extraction waste water in bulk. Fed. Regist. 2013, 78, 64905-64906.
21. Soraghan, M., Protecting oil from water - The history of state regulation, EnergyWire, December 14, 2011.
22. Texas H.B. No. 3328.
23. Ohio S.B. 315 (2012); 15 Ohio R. C. § 1509 et seq.
24. Kulander, C. S. Shale Oil and Gas State Regulatory Issues and Trends, 63 Case West. Res. L. Rev. 1101, 2013.
25. McAllister, E. Colorado's fracking bans could fall before courts Reuters, Nov. 7, 2013.
26. Gottlieb, C. Regulating Natural Gas Development through Local Planning and Land Use Controls. New York Zoning Law and Practice Report, May/June 2012, 12:6. http://cce.cornell.edu/EnergyClimateChange/NaturalGasDev/Documents/ NY%20ZONING%20HY DROFRACKING%20FINAL.pdf.
27. Fort Worth, Texas, Ordinance No. 18449-02-2009, Sec. 15-42.A.25 and B.
28. Healy, J., With ban on drilling practice, town lands in thick of dispute, New York Times, Nov. 26, 2012.
29. Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States: A Primer; U.S. Department of Energy: Tulsa and Oklahoma City, OK, May 2009; p 28, exhibit 26.
30. Schoemaker, P. J. H., Day, G. S. How to make sense of weak signals. In MIT Sloan Management Review, April 1, 2009.
31. Efstathiou, J., Tighter Fracking Regulations Favored by 65% of US in Poll, Bloomberg, March 15, 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-15/ tighter-fracking-regulations-favored-by-65-of- u-s-in-poll.html.
32. Brown, E., Hartman, K., Borick, C., Rabe, B., Ivacko, T., The National Surveys on Energy and the Environment: Public Opinion on Fracking, Perspectives from Michigan and Pennsylvania, Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2013. http://closup.umich.edu/files/nsee-fracking-fall-2012. pdf.
33. Henry Hub Natural Gas Spot Price Chart, http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/ rngwhhdd.htm.
34. Ratner, M., Tiemann, M. An Overview of Unconventional Oil and Natural Gas: Resources and Federal Actions, Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, 2014. www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43148.pdf.
35. Oklahoma Corporation Commission, Oil &Gas ConservationDivision, OG Well Records-Form 1000 (permit to drill). imaging.occeweb.com/imaging/ OGWellRecords.aspx.
36. Application for Permit to Drill-Form 1, Industrial Commission of North Dakota. www.dmr.nd.gov/oilgas/rules/forms/form1.PDF.
37. Prudent Development: Realizing the Potential of North America's Abundant Natural Gas and Oil Resources; National Petroleum Council: Washington, DC, 2011, at 35 http://www.npc.org/reports/rd.html.
38. Rabe, B. G. Shale play politics: The intergovernmental odyssey of american shale governance Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 10.1021/es4051132
39. Richardson, N.; Gottlieb, M.; Krupnick, A.; Wiseman, H. The State of State Shale Gas Regulation. In RFF Report; Washington, DC, 2013.
40. Harvard, K. Fracking in Maryland: Still under Study, Washington Post, January 17, 2013.
41. Navarro, M. New York State Plans Health Review as it Weighs Gas Drilling, New York Times, September 20, 2012.
42. Statement of Michele Siekerka, Delaware River Basin Commission Chair, July 10, 2013. http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/library/documents/statement-of- chair071013.pdf.
43. Risk Based Data Management System (RBDMS) and Cost Effective Regulatory Approaches (CERA) Related to Hydraulic Fracturing and Geologic Sequestration of CO2 Kick-off Presentation, January 2010, http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/ oil-gas/publications/ENVreports/FE0000880-GWPC-Kickoff.pdf.
44. Study of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources: Progress Report, EPA 601/R-12/011; U. S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2012, http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/ documents/hf-report20121214.pdf.
45. Esswin, E. J.; Breitenstein, M.; Snawder, J.; Kiefer, M.; Sieber, W. K. Occupational exposures to respirable crystalline silica during hydraulic fracturing J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2012, 10 (7) 347-56
46. Karion, A.; Sweeny, C.; Petron, G.; Frost, G.; Hardesty, R. M.; Kofler, J.; Miller, B. R.; Newberger, T.; Wolter, S.; Banta, R.; Brewer, A.; Dlugokencky, E.; Lang, P.; Montzka, S. A.; Schnell, R.; Tans, P.; Trainer, M.; Zamora, R.; Conley, S. Methane emissions estimate from airborne measurements over a western United States natural gas field Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40 (16) 4393-4397
47. Oil and Natural Gas Sector: Standards of Performance for Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production, Transmission, and Distribution: Background Supplemental Technical Support Document for the Final New Source Performance Standards; U. S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2012; http://epa.gov/ airquality/oilandgas/pdfs/20120418tsd.pdf.
48. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,Natural Gas STAR Program.Home Page. http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/ (accessed February 17, 2014).
49. Center for Sustainable Shale Gas Development Home Page. http://www.sustainableshale.org/ (accessed February 17, 2014).
50. Model Regulatory Framework for Hydraulically Fractured Hydrocarbon Production Wells (Well Integrity), Environmental Defense Fund Working Draft. http://portal.ncdenr.org/c/document-library/get-file?uuid=8356eb89-9c9f-4f8e- bb4d-4bb51b605575&groupId=8198095.
51. Gunningham, N.; Grabosky, P.; Sinclair, D. Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy; Oxford Press: Oxford, U.K., 1998.
52. BREATHE Act, H.R. 1154, 2013. http://beta.congress.gov/bill/113th/house- bill/1154/text.
53. Spence, D. B. Federalism, regulatory lags, and the political economy of energy production Univ. Pa. Law Rev. 2013, 161, 431
54. Freeman, J.; Spence, D., Should the Federal Government Regulate Fracking? Wall Street Journal, April 14, 2013.
55. Wiseman, H. Risk and response in fracturing policy Univ. Colo. Law Rev. 2013, 84, 729
56. Wiseman, H. Untested waters: The rise of hydraulic fracturing in oil and gas production and the need for revisiting regulation Fordham Environ. Law Rev. 2009-2010, 20, 115
57. Ruhl, J. B. Regulation by adaptive management - Is it possible? Minn. J. Law Sci. Technol. 2005, 7, 21-25
58. Ruhl, J. B.; Fischman, R. L. Adaptive Management in the Courts Minn. Law R. 2010, 95, 424
59. Cheng, E. K. Structural laws and the puzzle of regulating behavior N.W. U. L. Rev. 2006, 100, 2
60. Stoker, G. Governance as Theory: Five Propositions Int. Soc. Sci. J. 2002, 10.1111/1468-2451.00106
61. Holling, C. S. Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management; Wiley-Interscience: Chichester, U.K., 1978.
62. Shapiro, S. A.; Glicksman, R. L. Risk Regulation at Risk: Restoring a Pragmatic Approach; Stanford University Press: Redwood City, CA, 2003.
63. Shapiro, S. A.; Glicksman, R. L., The Missing Perspective, Environ. Forum, March/April 2003.
64. Doremus, H. Adaptive management as an information problem N. C. Law Rev. 2011, 89, 455
65. Boling, M. K. Governance of Risks of Unconventional Shale Gas Development-Ways Forward. In National Academy of Sciences Workshop, August 16, 2013; http://sites.nationalacademies.org/xpedio/groups/dbassesite/documents/ webpage/dbasse-084414.pdf.
66. Bunkley, N. New Gas Economy Rules Generate Wide Support, New York Times, January 17, 2012.
67. Freeman, J.; Rossi, J., Agency Coordination in Shared Regulatory Space, 125 Harvard Law Rev. 1134, March 2012.
68. Guide to Successful Corporate-NGO Partnerships, Global Environmental Management Initiative and Environmental Defense Fund (2008). http://www.gemi.org/resources/gemi-edf%20guide.pdf.
69. Van de Elst, N. J.; Savage, H. M.; Keranen, K. M.; Abers, G. A. Enhanced remote earthquake triggering at fluid-injection sites in the midwestern United States Science 2013, 341 (6142) 164-67
70. Efstathiou, J. Fracking-linked earthquakes spurring state regulations, Bloomberg, April 20, 2012.
71. Pruet, J. University studies if quakes in north Texas linked to fracking, Reuters, February 7, 2014.
72. Credit for producing fuel from a nonconventional source. U.S. Code Section 45K, Title 26.
73. Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking), National Association of Insurance Commissioners and the Center for Insurance Policy and Research. http://www.naic.org/cipr-topics/topic-hydraulic-fracturing.htm (accessed February 17, 2014).
74. Warner, N. R.; Christie, C. A.; Jackson, R. B.; Vengosh, A. Impacts of shale gas wastewater disposal on water quality in western Pennsylvania Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 11849
75. Sreekumar, A. Three natural gas producers aggressively slashing costs, The Motley Fool, November 21, 2013. http://www.dailyfinance.com/2013/11/21/3- gas-producers-aggressively-slashing-costs/ (accessed February 17, 2014).
76. Regulatory and Non-Regulatory Approaches to Pollution Control, Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2010; http://yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/eerm.nsf/vwAN/EE-0568-04. pdf/$file/EE-0568-04.pdf.
77. Author Interview with Paul Gunning, Director, Climate Change Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency, September 20, 2012.
78. Hydraulic Fracturing Operations - Well Construction and Integrity Guidelines, API Guidance Document HF1, Oct. 2009. http://www.shalegas.energy. gov/resources/HF1.pdf.
79. Behr, P., Authors of Model Fracking Regulation Find it's Lonely in the Middle, Midwest Energy News, Oct. 4, 2012. http://www.midwestenergynews.com/ 2012/10/04/authors-of-model-fracking-regulation-find-its-lonely-in-the-middle/ (accessed February 17, 2014).
80. EDF Working Copy of the Model Regulatory Framework. http://portal.ncdenr. org/c/document-library/get-file?uuid=8356eb89-9c9f-4f8e-bb4d- 4bb51b605575&groupId=8198095.
81. Sparrow, M. The Regulatory Craft: Controlling Risks, Solving Problems, and Managing Compliance; Brookings Press: Washington, DC, 2000.
82. Siegler, K. Drilling boom strains state regulatory agencies, NPR, May 7, 2012. http://www.npr.org/2012/05/07/152177408/drilling-boom-strains-state- regulatory-agencies.
83. Pagano, S. Dallas approves gas drilling ordinance, offering protections for homes, schools. Bloomberg BNA Daily Environ. Rep., December 16, 2013.
84. Well Monitoring Services: Baker Hughes. http://www.bakerhughes.com/ products-and-services/production/intelligent-production-systems/ well-monitoring-services (accessed February 17, 2014).
85. Synodon-Oil and Gas Leak Detection, Leader in Remote Sensing, Home Page. http://www.synodon.com/ (accessed February 17, 2014).
86. United States v. Shell Oil Company, Deer Park Refining Ltd. Partnership, and Shell Chemical, LP, No. 4:13-cv-2009 (S.D. Tex.) Consent Decree, filed July 10, 2013. http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/sdp-cd.pdf.
87. Hammer, R.; Van Briesen, J. In fracking's wake: New rules are needed to protect our health and environment from contaminated waste water, D:12-05-A. Natural Resources Defense Council Policy Paper, May 2012.
88. Michigan Residents Demand Tougher Regulations After Oil Waste Dump, EnergyWire, August 15, 2013.
89. Caruso, D. B. Pennsylvania Allows Dumping of Tainted Waters from Gas Boom, Associated Press/Pittsurgh Post-Gazette, January 4, 2011.
90. Soraghan, M. In N.M., 3,600 violations, 1 court case, 0 fines; EnergyWire, March 26, 2013.
91. Lee, M. Texas Regulators Issue Few Fines for Eagle Ford Pollution, EnergyWire, September 30, 2013.
92. Law and Order in the Oil & Gas Fields: A Review of the Inspection and Enforcement Programs in 5 Western States (2013 Update), Western Organization of Resource Councils. http://worc.org/userfiles/file/ Oil%20Gas%20Coalbed%20Methane/Law&Order2013.pdf (accessed Februsry 17, 2014).
93. Shale Gas Production Subcommittee Ninety Day Report, U.S. Department of Energy, Secretary of Energy Advisory Board, Washington, DC, August 18, 2011, http://www.shalegas.energy.gov/resources/081811-90-day-report-final.pdf.
94. Presentation by U.S. Department of Energy Deputy Assistant Secretary Paula Gant, Ph.D, before the FracFocus Task Force of the Secretary of Energy Advisory Board, Washington, DC, January 6, 2014.
95. NETL's Energy Data Exchange (EDX) - A Web-Based Tool to Coordinate Energy Research; Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory: Corvallis, OR, 2013, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/rd/ R&D184%20.pdf.
96. Climate Change 2007, Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis, Contributions of Work Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.; Avery, K. B.; Tignor, M.; Miller, H. L., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, and New York, 2007, at Table 2.14.
97. Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment (1990), Report Prepared for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Houghton, J. T.; Jenkins, G. J.; Ephraums, J. J., Eds. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications-and-data/publications- ipcc-first-assessment-1990-wg1.shtml#.U wVGlmJdX0c.
98. Jiang, M.; Griffin, W. M.; Hendrickson, C.; Jaramillo, P.; Van Briesen, J.; Venkatesh, A. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of Marcellus shale gas, Environ. Res. Lett. 6, 2011; DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/03414.
99. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Formation Fluid and Buildup of Methane: Options for Removing Accumulated Fluid and Improving Flow in Gas Wells. Lessons Learned from Gas STAR Partners. www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/11- options.pdf (accessed February 17, 2014).
100. Oil and Gas: Information on Shale Resources, Development, and Environmental and Public Health Risks, GAO-12-732; U.S. Government Accountability Office: Washington, DC, 2012, at 36.
101. Maykuth, A. Major Interstate Pipeline Firm Wants to Expand its Network in Philadelphia Area. Philadelphia Inquirer, March 6, 2013.
102. Natural Gas Gross Withdrawals and Production: Vented and Flared; U.S. Energy Information Administration: Washington, DC, 2012; http://www.eia.gov/ dnav/ng/ng-prod-sum-a-epg0-vgv-mmcf-a.htm.
103. Brandt, A. R.; Heath, G. A.; Kort, E. A.; O'Sullivan, F.; Petron, G.; Jordaan, S. M.; Tans, P.; Gopstein, A. M.; Arent, D.; Wofsy, S.; Brown, N. J.; Bradley, R.; Stucky, G. D.; Eardley, D. Methane leaks from north american natural gas systems Science 2014, 343 (61) 733
104. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Natural GasSTAR Program:Accomplishments; http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/accomplishments/index.html (accessed February 17, 2014).
105. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Natural Gas STAR Program:Documents, Tools and Resources. http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/tools/index.html#technical (accessed February 17, 2014).
106. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Lessons Learned fromGas STAR Partners: Reduced Emissions Completions for HydraulicallyFractured Natural Gas Wells. http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/reduced-emissions-completions.pdf (accessed February 17, 2014).
107. Standards of Performance for Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production, Transmission, and Distribution. Code of Federal Regulations, Section 60.5430, Title 40 (defining "natural gas well" as "an onshore well drilled principally for production of natural gas").
108. Juliano, N. Natural Gas: Devon Quits EPA Gas Group Amid Methane Data Dispute, Greenwire, March 11, 2013.
109. EPA draws multiple industry, environmentalist suits over drilling air rules, InsideEPA, October 17, 2012, http://insideepa.com/Inside-EPA-General/ Inside-EPA-Public-Content/epa-draws- multiple-industry-environmentalist-suits- over-drilling-air-rules/menu-id-565.html?S=LI.
110. Press Release, Colorado Set to Become First State to Regulate Detection, Reduction of Methane Emissions Associated with Oil and Gas Drilling, November 18, 2013, http://www.colorado.gov/cs/Satellite/GovHickenlooper/CBON/ 1251648046456.
111. Literature Assessment of Remote Sensing Technologies for Detecting and Estimating Emissions for Flares and Fugitives, Texas Commission on Environmental Quality Work Order 582-07-84005- FY09-09; Environ International Corp.; https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/implementation/air/am/contracts/ reports/oth/5820784005F Y0809-20080530-environ-remote-sensing-flares-fugitives. pdf.
112. EPA Handbook: Optimal Remote Sensing for Measurement and Monitoring of Emissions Flux; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Research Triangle, NC, 2011; http://www.epa.gov/ttnemc01/guidlnd/gd-052.pdf.
113. Michigan Rule 324.506 (prohibiting flaring in residential areas).
114. Mandatory reporting of greenhouse gases: Petroleum and natural gas systems; Final rule. Fed. Regist. 2010, 75, 74458-74515.
115. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2011, EPA-430-R-13-001; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2013; http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/Downloads/ghgemissions/US-GHG-Inventory-2013- Main- Text.pdf.
116. Allen, D. T.; Torres, V. M.; Thomas, J.; Sullivan, D. W.; Harrison, M.; Hendler, A.; Herndon, S. C.; Kolb, C. E.; Fraser, M. P.; Hill, A. D.; Lamb, B. K.; Miskimins, J.; Sawyer, R. F.; Seinfeld, J. H. Measurements of Methane Emissions at Natural Gas Production Sites in the United States. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2013, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/09/10/1304880110.full. pdf+html.
117. Brown, C. NOVIM Presentation at EPA Stakeholder Workshop on Natural Gas in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, September 13-14, 2012, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/Downloads/ghgemissions/2012Workshop/ Novim-Brown.pdf.
118. Phillips, N. G.; Ackley, R.; Crosson, E. R.; Down, A.; Hutyra, L. R.; Brondfield, M.; Karr, J. D.; Zhao, K.; Jackson, R. B. Mapping urban pipeline leaks: Methane leaks across Boston Environ. Pollut. 2013, 173, 1-4
119. Miller, S. M.; Wofsy, S. C.; Michalak, A. M.; Kort, E. A.; Andrews, A. E.; Biraud, S. C.; Dlugokencky, E. J.; Eluszkiewicz, J.; Fischer, M. L.; Janssens-Maenhout, G.; Miller, B. R.; Miller, J. B.; Montzka, S. A.; Nehrkorn, T.; Sweeny, C. Anthropogenic emissions of methane in the United States. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 2013, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/11/20/1314392110.
120. Today in Energy: Over One-Third of Natural Gas Production in North Dakota is Flared or Otherwise not Marketed, U.S. Energy Information Administration, November 23, 2011, http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=4030.
121. Lee, M. As Emissions Continue to Go Up in the Air, North Dakota Moves to Tighten Loose Flaring Rules, EnergyWire, September 10, 2013.
122. Clean Air Act. U.S. Code, Section 7411(d), Title 42.
123. 5 Code of Colorado Regulations 1001-9, Sec. XVII.A.2 (proposed definition of "Approved Instrument Based Monitoring Method"), http://www.colorado.gov/cs/Satellite?blobcol=urldata&blobheadername1= Content-Disposition&blobheadername2=Content-Type&blobheadervalue1= inline%3B+filename%3D%22Regulation+Number+7%3A++Proposed+Regulatory+Language+%2 819+pages%29.pdf%22&blobheadervalue2=application%2Fpdf&blobkey= id&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobwhere=1251909500538&ssbinary=true.
124. Pennsylvania Code, Section 59.111, Title 52.
125. Texas Admin. Code, Section 7.5525, Title 16.
126. America Pays for Gas Leaks: A report prepared for Sen. Edward J. Markey, Conservation Law Foundation, 2013, http://www.clf.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/ 08/Markey-Gas-Leaks-Report-2.pdf.
127. Pipeline Modernization and Consumer Protection Act, S. 1767 (2013).
128. King, G. Apache Corporation, Hydraulic Fracturing 101: What Every Representative, Environmentalist, Regulator, Reporter, Investor, University Researcher, Neighbor and Engineer Should Know about Estimating Frac Risk and Improving Frac Performance in Unconventional Gas and Oil Wells, at 10, SPE 152596. Presentation at the Society for Petroleum Engineers Conference, 6-8 February 2012.
129. Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Energy & Commerce Minority Staff Report, 2011. http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/ Hydraulic-Fracturing- Chemicals-2011-4-18.pdf.
130. Lutz, B. D.; Lewis, A. N.; Doyle, M. W. Generation, transport, and disposal of wastewater associated with Marcellus Shale gas development Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49:2, 647-56 10.1002/wrcr.20096
131. Soraghan, M. Two-thirds of frack disclosures omit 'secrets,' EnergyWire, September 26, 2012.
132. 2 Code of Colorado Regulations 404-1:100 ("Hydraulic Fracturing Additive"), 1:205A.
133. Natural Gas Development Activities & High-Volume Hydraulic Fracturing, Chapter 5, Supplemental Generic Environmental Impact Statement, Revised Draft, 5-63; New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, New York, Sept. 2011 ("[c]ompound-specific toxicity data are very limited for many chemical additives to fracturing fluids"). http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/materials-minerals-pdf/rdsgeisch50911.pdf.
134. FracFocus Home Page. http://www.fracfocus.org (accessed February 17, 2014).
135. FracFocus Frequently Asked Questions ("What Information Is Contained in the Hydraulic Fracturing Records?"). http://fracfocus.org/faq (accessed February 17, 2014).
136. Carroll, J., Chesapeake testing 'green' fracking fluids in shale wells, Bloomberg, Oct. 2, 2012.
137. Idaho Admin. Code r. 20.07.02.056.02.
138. 3 Wy. Code. R. § 45(g).
139. Quigley, J. H., on behalf of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, The Case for Maryland's Proposed Comprehensive Gas Development Plan Program, 2013, http://www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/mining/marcellus/ Documents/Case-for-Marylands-C GDP-Program.pdf.
140. GE Power & Water: Water & Process Technologies: Unconventional Fuels. Home Page. http://www.gewater.com/unconventional-fuels.html?cid= IndustriesPod (accessed Feb. 17, 2014).
141. Energy Policy Act of 2005. Public Law 109-58, Sec. 322, 2005.
142. McFeeley, M., State Hydraulic Fracturing Disclosure Rules and Enforcement: A Comparison. NRDC Issue Brief IB-12-06-A, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/Fracking-Disclosure-IB.pdf.
143. Arkansas General Rule H-2.
144. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.22(D)(2)-(4).
145. Resource Recovery and Conservation Act. U.S. Code, Section 6921(b)(2), Title 42.
146. Regulatory determination for oil and gas and geothermal exploration, development, and production wastes. Fed. Regist. 1988, 53, 25447-25459.
147. West Virginia Code, Sections 22-6A-9, 22-6A-4(10) (definition of pit).
148. Pennsylvania Code, Section 78.56(a)(4), Title 25.
149. Illinois Hydraulic Fracturing Regulatory Act, Pub. Act 098-0022, Art. I, Section 1-75(c)(1).
150. Michigan Rule 324.407(3) (tank rule applies in residential areas).
151. Oklahoma ADC 165:10-7-15(f)(7)(B).
152. Illinois Hydraulic Fracturing Regulatory Act of 2013, Pub. Law 098-0022, Section 1-80.
153. West Virginia Code, Section 22-6A-14.
154. Texas Admin. Codȩ Section 3.8(d)(4)(G)(i), Title 16.
155. Pennsylvania Code, Section 78.63, Title 25.
156. Michigan Rule 324.705(3) (brines under a pollutant threshold).
157. Oklahoma ADC 165:10-3-1(f).
158. Pennsylvania Code, Section 78.61, 78.62 (drill cuttings), Title 25.
159. 2 Code of Colorado Regulations, 404-1:324A(e).
160. Michigan Rule 324.801.
161. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.22(C)(1).
162. Texas Railroad Commission, "News Release:Railroad Commission Today Adopts New RecyclingRules to Help Enhance Water Conservation by Oil and Gas Operators,"March 26, (2013.
163. Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, Section 3222(b.1)(viii), Title 52.
164. STRONGER: Our History, State Review of Natural Gas Environmental Regulations. http://www.strongerinc.org/our-history (accessed Feb. 17, 2014).
165. Gilmer, E. M. Few states submitting oil and gas rules for review, EnergyWire, September 10, 2012.
166. Vaidyanathan, G. Multiple violations don't change habits of some West Virginia d, EnergyWire, March 26, 2013.
167. Urbina, I. Drilling down: regulations lax as gas wells' tainted water hits rivers, New York Times, February 26, 2011.
168. May 12, 2011, Letter from EPA Regional Administrator Shawn M. Garvin, to PA DEP Secretary Michael Krancer, http://www.epa.gov/region03/marcellus-shale/ pdf/letter/krancer-letter5-12-11.pdf.
169. Administrative Order for Compliance on Consent in the Matter of Fluid Recovery Services, LLC; Hart Resource Technologies, Inc., Penn Brine Treatment, Inc., May 18, 2013, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Region III, http://www.epa.gov/region3/marcellus-shale/pdf/ao/aocc-frs-hart- pbt-executed-5-8-13.pdf.
170. U.S. Department of Justice Press Release, Louisiana Jury Convicts General Manager/former Owner of Arkla Disposal Services of Violations of Clean Water Act and Obstructing an EPA Investigation, March 22, 2012, http://www.justice. gov/opa/pr/2012/March/12-enrd-360.html.
171. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Summaryof CriminalProsecutions: Pemco Services Incorporated, Travis County, Texas, D-1-DC-12-900211-2180, (2013; http://cfpub.epa.gov/compliance/criminal-prosecution/index.cfm?action= 3&prosecution-summary- id=2392.
172. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. U.S. Code, Section 6921(b)(2)(C), Title 42.
173. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, State or Regional Solid Waste Plans. U.S. Code, Section 6941 et seq., Title 42, Subtitle D.
174. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. U.S. Code, 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27) (defining "solid waste" broadly enough to include all wastes exempted from hazardous waste regulation), Title 42.
175. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. U.S. Code, Section 6972, Title 42.
176. Standards for the management of cement kiln dust. Fed. Regist. 1999, 64, 45632, 45697.
177. Hansen, E.; Mulvaney, D.; Betcher, M., Water Resource Reporting and Water Footprint from Marcellus Shale Development in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, Downstream Strategies Report Prepared for Earthworks Oil & Gas Accountability Project, October 30, 2013, http://www.downstreamstrategies.com/ documents/reports-publication/marcellus-wv-pa.pdf.
178. The Hazardous Waste Electronic Manifest Establishment Act of 2012. Public Law 112-195, 2012.
179. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.223(c).
180. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. U.S. Code, Section 6939f(c), Title 42.
181. Waste Market Overview & Outlook Waste Bus. J. 2012.
182. Solid Waste Hauler Registration, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Home Page. http://des.nh.gov/organization/divisions/ waste/swrtas/permit-sw-hauler-registr.htm (accessed February 17, 2014).
183. McAllister, L. K. Regulation by Third-Party Verification Boston College L. Rev. 2012, 53, 1
184. Osborn, S. G.; Vengosh, A.; Warner, N. R.; Jackson, R. B. Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108, 20
185. Shiflet, N.; Dion, M. O.; Flores, D. P. A Practical Solution to Control Gas Migration, AADE-05-NTCE-71, American Association of Drilling Engineers; http://www.tamintl.com/images/stories/pdfs/A-Practical-Solution.pdf.
186. Brufatto, C.; Cochran, J.; Conn, L.; Power, D.; Zaki Abd Alla El-Zeghaty, S.; Fraboulet, B.; Griffin, T.; James, S.; Munk, T.; Justus, F.; Levine, J. R.; Montgomery, C.; Murphy, D.; Pfeiffer, J.; Pornpoch, T.; Rishmani, L. From mud to cement - Building gas wells. Oilfield Review, Autumn 2003.
187. Galbraith, K., Abandoned Oil Wells Raise Fears of Pollution, New York Times, June 8, 2013.
188. NETL: Monitoring of Air, Land, and Water Resources During Shale Gas Production, R&D 167; National Energy Technology Laboratory: Pittsburgh, PA, 2013, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/rd/R%26D167.pdf.
189. Saji., V. S. A review on recent patents in corrosion inhibitors, Bentham Open, December 7, 2009; http://www.benthamscience.com/open/rptcs/articles/V002/ 6RPTCS.pdf.
190. Wellbore Integrity Assurance with NETL's Safe Cementing Research. National Energy Technology Laboratory, http://www.netl.doe.gov/File%20Library/ Research/onsite%20research/publications/WellboreIntegri tyAssurance-pages-v2-10- 14-.pdf.
191. Pearce, J. G.; Rambow, F. H. K.; Shroyer, W. W.; Huckabee, P. T.; De Jongh, H.; Dria, D. E.; Childers, B. A.; Hall, T.; Dominique, T. High Resolution, Real Time Casing Strain Imaging for Reservoir and Well Integrity Monitoring: Demonstration of Monitoring Capability in a Field Installation, SPE-124932-MS, SPE Annual Technical Conference, 4-7 October 2011, New Orleans, Louisiana.
192. Verification Protocol, Center for Sustainable Shale Development, September 27, 2013, Standard 7; https://www.sustainableshale.org/wp-content/ uploads/2014/01/Verification-Protocol.pdf.
193. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.10.
194. Railroad Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division Tex. Regist. 2012, 37, 4892
195. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.06(A)(8)(c).
196. 2 Code of Colorado Regulations, 404-1:317B(d)-(e), 609(b).
197. Ohio Revised Code, Section 1509.06.
198. Pennsylvania Consolidated Statute, Section 3218, Title 58.
199. North Carolina General Statutes, Section 113-421.
200. North Dakota Administrative Code 43-02-03-54.
201. Pennsylvania Consolidated Statute, Section 3218, Title 58.
202. 225 Illinois Comp. Statute 732/1-83.
203. Legere, L. Sunday Times review of DEP drilling records reveal water damage, Murky Testing Methods. Sunday Times-Tribune, May 19, 2013.
204. Texas Administrative Code, Sections 3.13, 3.99, 3.100, Title 16.
205. Railroad Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division Tex. Regist. 2013, 38, 3525 at 18