The diffusion of Performance and Image-Enhancing Drugs (PIEDs) on the internet: The abuse of the cognitive enhancer piracetam

Substance Use and Misuse

Volumn 49, Issue 14, 2014, Pages 1849-1856

  Corazza, Ornella ^a   Bersani, Francesco Saverio ^a,b   Brunoro, Roberto ^a   Valeriani, Giuseppe ^a,c   Martinotti, Giovanni ^d   Schifano, Fabrizio ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HERTFORDSHIRE   (United Kingdom)

^b SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^c SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CHIETI   (Italy)

Author keywords

Addiction; Cognitive enhancer; Drug abuse; Online pharmacies; Performance and image enhancing drugs; Piracetam

Indexed keywords

NOOTROPIC AGENT; PERFORMANCE ENHANCING SUBSTANCE; PIRACETAM; STREET DRUG;

ADDICTION; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; HUMAN; INTERNET; PHARMACY; SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION;

COMMERCE; HUMANS; INTERNET; NOOTROPIC AGENTS; PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING SUBSTANCES; PHARMACEUTICAL SERVICES, ONLINE; PIRACETAM; STREET DRUGS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 84904823847     PISSN: 10826084     EISSN: 15322491     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10826084.2014.912232     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). (2011). Consideration of the Novel Psychoactive Substances ('Legal Highs'). Retrieved June 20, 2013, from: https://www.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment data/file/1191 39/acmdnps2011.pdf
2. Ahmed, A. H., & Oswald, R. E. (2010). Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 53(5), 2197-2203
3. Benesova, O. (1980). The effects of nootropic drugs on the susceptibility to audiogenic seizures in rats. Activitas Nervosa superior (Praha), 22, 192-193
4. Bersani, F. S., Corazza, O., Simonato, P., Mylokosta, A., Levari, E., Lovaste, R., & Schifano F. (2013). Drops of madness? Recreational misuse of tropicamide collyrium; early warning alerts from Russia and Italy. General Hospital Psychiatry, 35(5), 571-573
5. Brainmeta. Piracetam: Does it work, what are pros/cons? (2011). Retrieved July 12, 2013, from: http://brainmeta.com/ forum/index.php?showtopic=23425
6. Brandao, F., Cadete-Leite, A., Andrade, J. P., Madeira, M. D., & Paula-Barbosa, M. M. (1996). Piracetam promotes mossy fiber synaptic reorganization in rats withdrawn from alcohol. Alcohol, 13, 239-249
7. Brandao, F., Paula-Barbosa, M. M., & Cadete-Leite, A. (1995). Piracetam impedes hippocampal neuronal loss during withdrawal after chronic alcohol intake. Alcohol, 12, 279-288
8. Cohen, S. A., & Müller, W. E. (1993). Effects of piracetam on Nmethyl-D-Aspartate receptor properties in the aged mouse brain. Pharmacology, 47, 217-222
9. Corazza, O., Assi, S., Simonato, P., Corkery, J., Bersani, F. S., Demetrovics, Z., Schifano F. (2013). Promoting innovation and excellence to face the rapid diffusion of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) in the EU: The outcomes of the ReDNet project. Human Psychopharmacology, 28(4), 317-323
10. Corazza, O., Schifano, F., Deluca, P., Davey, Z., Torrens, M., Demetrovics, Z., (2011). Designer drugs on the internet: A phenomenon out-of-control? the emergence of hallucinogenic drug Bromo-Dragonfly. Current Clinical Pharmacology, 6(2), 125-129
11. Danilova, E. I., Grafova, V. N., & Reshetniak, V. K. (1996). The action of piracetam and its complex with sodium oxybutyrate in the neuropathic pain syndrome. Eksperimental'naia i klinicheskaia farmakologiia, 59(4), 8-10
12. Drugs-forum. Another Piracetam Experiment. (2006b). Retrieved June 25, 2013, from: http://www.drugs-forum.com/ forum/showthread.php?t=136253
13. Drugs-forum. Cocaine and Piracetam. (2009b). Retrieved July 22, 2013, from: http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/show thread.php?t=84660
14. Drugs-forum. High Dose piracetam My findings. (2011). Retrieved June 6, 2013, from: http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/show thread.php?t=153468
15. Drugs-forum. Kratom Mitragyna speciosa. (2009a). Retrieved August 12, 2013, from: http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/show thread.php?t=79493
16. Drugs-forum. LSD Piracetam combo. (2005). Retrieved July 11, 2013, from: http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/showthread. php?t=6977
17. Drugs-forum. Nootropics Smartdrugs, Brain boosters & Cognitive enhancers. (2006a). Retrieved July, 2013, from: http:// www.drugs-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=136253
18. Erowid Experience Vault. Effects of Piracetam on MDMA, LSD, methamphetamine, and other drugs. (2001). Retrieved August 31, 2013, from: http://www.erowid.org/experiences/exp. php?ID=9126
19. Erowid Experience Vault. It rules!!! Piracetam. (2008). Retrieved July 23, 2013, from: http://erowid.org/experiences/exp. php?ID=68705
20. Erowid Experience Vault. Piracetam The effects. (2007). Retrieved June 30, 2013, from: http://erowid.org/experiences/exp. php?ID=53927
21. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction(EMCDDA). (2010). Annual report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe. Lisbon; 2010. Retrieved August 1,2013, from:http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/annualreport/2010.
22. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction(EMCDDA). (2011). Annual report 2011 ' the state of the drugs problem in Europe. Lisbon; Retrieved August 1,2013, from: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/annualreport/2011.
23. Evans-Brown, M., McVeigh, J., Perkins, C., & Bellis, M. (2012). Human enhancement drugs: The emerging challenges to public health. Centre for Public Health, Liverpool John Moores University
24. Fassoulaki, A., Kostopanagiotou, G., Kaniaris, P., & Varonos, D. D. (1985). Piracetam attenuates the changes in the surface potential of the phosphatidylcholine monolayer produced by alcohols. Acta anaesthesiologica Belgica, 36, 47-51
25. Giurgea, C. (1972). Towards an integrative pharmacology of the activity of the brain. Attempt at the nootropic concept in psychopharmacology. Actual Pharmacology (Paris), 25, 115-176
26. Graham, M. R., Ryan, P., Baker, J. S., Davies, B., Thomas, N. E., Cooper, S. M., Kicman, A. T. (2009). Counterfeiting in performance- And image-enhancing drugs. Drug Testing and Analysis, 1(3), 135-142
27. Jordaan, B., Oliver, D.W., Dormehl, I. C., & Hugo, N. (1996). Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide. Arzneimittelforschung, 46(9), 844-847
28. Keller, M., Blench, M., Tolentino, H., Freifeld, C. C., Mandl, K. D., Mawudeku, A., Brownstein, J. S. (2009). Use of unstructured event-based reports for global infectious disease surveillance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 15(5), 689-695
29. Larance, B., Degenhardt, L., Copeland, J., & Dillon, P. (2008). Injecting risk behaviour and related harm among men who use performance- And image-enhancing drugs. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27(6), 679-686
30. Libov, I., Miodownik, C., Bersudsky, Y., Dwolatzky, T., & Lerner, V. (2007). Efficacy of piracetam in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(7), 1031-1037
31. Littlejohn, C., Baldacchino, A., Schifano, F., & Deluca, P. (2005). Internet pharmacies and online prescription Drug sales: A crosssectional study. Drugs: Education, Prevention, and Policy, 12, 75-80
32. Longecity. Learning aid: Piracetam vs. Modafinil. (2007). Retrieved July 18, 2013, from: http://www.longecity.org/forum/ topic/15948-learning-Aid-piracetam-vs-modafinil/.
33. Müller, W. E., Koch, S., Scheuer, D., Rostock, A., & Bartsch, R. (1997). Effects of piracetam on membrane fluidity in the aged mouse, rat, and human brain. Biochemical Pharmacology, 53, 135-140
34. Myhelpforum. Piracetam, farmaco nootropico. (2012). Retrieved June 13, 2013, from: http://myhelp.forumfree.it/?t=60144419
35. Nootrabiolabs. (2013). Retrieved August 1, 2013, from: http:// www.nootrabiolabs.com/index.php?route=product/search & fil ter name=piracetam
36. Nootropic reviews. Where to find piracetam bulk powder for sale. (2013). Retrieved July 20, 2013, from: http:// bestnootropic.org/piracetam-bulk-powder/.
37. Orizio, G., Schulz, P., Domenighini, S., Caimi, L., Rosati, C., Rubinelli, S., & Gelatti, U. (2009). Cyberdrugs: A crosssectional study of online pharmacies characteristics. European Journal of Public Health, 19(4), 375-377
38. Peuvot, J., Schank, A., Deleers, M., & Brasseur, R. (1995). Piracetam-induced changes to membrane physical properties. A combined approach by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and conformational analysis. Biochemical Pharmacology, 50, 1129-1134
39. Piracetam Review. Youtube video. (2011). Retrieved July 17, 2013, from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVxN8vRUu5g
40. Piracetam Smart Drug Secret. (2010). Youtube video. Retrieved July 30, 2013, from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player embedded v=lWUnKAqcUdM
41. Schifano, F., Corazza, O., Marchi, A., DiMelchiorre, G., Sferrazza, E., Enea, A., Deluca, P. (2013). Psychonaut web mapping e rednet research projects. [Analysis of online reports on the potential misuse of benzidamine]. Rivista di Psichiatria, 48(3), 182-186
42. Schifano, F., D'Offizi, S., Piccione, M., Corazza, O., Deluca, P., Davey, Z., Scherbaum, N. (2011). Is there a recreational misuse potential for pregabalin? Analysis of anecdotal online reports in comparison with related gabapentin and clonazepam data. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 80(2), 118-122
43. Schifano, F., Deluca, P., Baldacchino, A., Peltoniemi, T., Scherbaum, N., Torrens, M., Ghodse, A. H. (2006). Drugs on the web; the Psychonaut 2002 EU project. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 30(4), 640-646
44. Schifano, F., Leoni, M., Martinotti, G., Rawaf, S., & Rovetto, F. (2003). Importance of cyberspace for the assessment of the drug abuse market: Preliminary results from the Psychonaut 2002 Project. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, 6, 405-441
45. Smart drugs make learning easier. (2010). Youtube video. Retrieved July 26, 2013, from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7inflAWSWc
46. TGMOnline. (2008). Preparati Nootropi o Smart Drugs. Retrieved August 12, 2013, from: http://forum.tgmonline.it/showthread. php?154770-Preparati
47. Treato. (2013 Jul 7). Piracetam. Retrieved August 10, 2013, from: http://treato.com/Piracetam, Spacey/?a=s & p=7
48. US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2010). Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations. Retrieved September 19, 2012, from: http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/ EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/ucm225605.htm
49. Waegemans, T., Wilsher, C. R., Danniau, A., Ferris, S. H., Kurz, A., & Winblad, B. (2002). Clinical efficacy of piracetam in cognitive impairment: A meta-Analysis. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 13, 217-224
50. Winblad, B. (2005). Piracetam: A review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses. CNS Drug Reviews, 11(2), 169-182