Kitchen chemistry: A scoping review of the diversionary use of pharmaceuticals for non-medicinal use and home production of drug solutions

Drug Testing and Analysis

Volumn 6, Issue 7-8, 2014, Pages 778-787

  Van Hout, Marie Claire ^a  

^a South East Technological University   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Diversion; Drug solution; Non medicinal; Pharmaceuticals; Tampering

Indexed keywords

BEVERAGES; DRUG PRODUCTS;

COUGH SYRUP; DIVERSION; DRUG SOLUTIONS; HEALTH CONCERNS; NON-MEDICINAL; RESEARCH QUESTIONS; SCOPING PROCESS; SCOPING REVIEW; SOFT DRINKS; TAMPERING;

PUBLIC HEALTH;

ALCOHOL; CATHINONE; CODEINE; DEXTROMETHORPHAN; METHAMPHETAMINE; METHCATHINONE; OPIATE; DRUG; STREET DRUG;

DRUG MISUSE; DRUG SOLUTION; HUMAN; MEDICAL RECORD; PLANT LEAF; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SOFT DRINK; SYRUP; DRUG-RELATED SIDE EFFECTS AND ADVERSE REACTIONS; HEALTH SURVEY; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION;

DRUG-RELATED SIDE EFFECTS AND ADVERSE REACTIONS; HUMANS; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; PUBLIC HEALTH SURVEILLANCE; STREET DRUGS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 84904607923     PISSN: 19427603     EISSN: 19427611     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/dta.1622     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. EMCDDA, Annual Report 2010, Trends in Injecting Drug use in Europe. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, 2010.
2. EMCDDA. Annual Report 2011, The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon. 2011.
3. S.P. Stewart, S.E. Bell, N.C. Fletcher, S. Bouazzaoui, Y.C. Ho, S.J. Speers, K.L. Peters . Raman spectroscopy for forensic examination of β-ketophenethylamine 'legal highs': reference and seized samples of cathinone derivatives. Anal. Chim. Acta 2012, 711, 1.
4. C.T. Gallagher, S. Assi, J.L. Stair, S. Fergus, O. Corazza, J.M. Corkery, F. Schifano . 5, 6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane: From laboratory curiosity to legal high. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2012, 27, 106.
5. O. Corazza, Z. Demetrovics, W. van den Brink, F. Schifano . 'Legal highs' an inappropriate term for 'novel psychoactive drugs' in drug prevention and scientific debate. Int. J. Drug Policy 2013, 24, 82.
6. L. Iversen, S. Gibbons, R. Treble, V. Setola, X.P. Huang, B. Roth . Neuro pharmacology and analgesia euro chemical profiles of some novel psychoactive substances. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2013, 700, 147.
7. J. Jebadurai, F. Schifano, P. Deluca . Recreational use of 1-(2-naphthyl)-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-pentanone hydrochloride (NRG-1), 6-(2-aminopropyl) benzofuran (Benzofury/ 6-APB) and NRG-2 with review of available evidence-based literature. Hum. Psychopharm-Clin. 2013, 28, 356.
8. S. Davies, D.M. Wood, G. Smith, J. Button, J. Ramsey, D.W. Holt, P.I. Dargan . Purchasing 'legal highs' on the Internet - is there consistency in what you get? QJM 2010, 103, 489.
9. M.M. Schmidt, A. Sharma, F. Schifano, C. Feinmann . Legal highs on the net- evaluation of UK-based Websites, products and product information. Forensic Sci. Int. 2010, 206, 92.
10. P. Deluca, Z. Davey, O. Corazza, L. Di Furia, M. Farre, L.H. Flesland, M. Mannonen, A. Majava, T. Peltoniemi, M. Pasinetti, C. Pezzolesi, N. Scherbaum, H. Siemann, A. Skutle, M. Torrens, P. van der Kreeft, E. Iversen, F. Schifano . Identifying emerging trends in recreational drug use; outcomes from the Psychonaut Web Mapping Project. Prog. Neuro-Psychoph. 2012, 39, 221.
11. T.C. Ayres, J.W. Bond . A chemical analysis examining the pharmacology of novel psychoactive substances freely available over the internet and their impact on public (ill)health. Legal highs or illegal highs? Brit. Med. J. 2012, 2, e000977.
12. D. Zuba, B. Byrska . Prevalence and co-existence of active components of 'legal highs', Drug Test. Anal. 2012, 5, 420.
13. UNODC. The Non Medicinal Use of Prescription Drugs, discussion paper. UNODC, Vienna, 2011.
14. L. Azbel, S. Dvoryak, F. Altice . 'Krokodil' and what a long strange trip it's been. Int. J. Drug Policy 2013 24, 275.
15. UNODC. World Drug Report 2013. United Nations, Vienna, 2013.
16. M. Farré, J. Camí . Pharmacokinetic considerations in abuse liability evaluation. Brit. J. Addict. 1991, 86, 1601.
17. L.R. Hays . A profile of oxycontin addiction. J. Addict. Dis. 2004, 23, 1.
18. N. Katz, R.C. Dart, E. Bailey, J. Trudeau, E. Osgood, F. Paillard . Tampering with prescription opioids: Nature and extent of the problem, health consequences, and solutions. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Ab. 2011, 37, 205.
19. W.H. Oldendorf . Some relationships between addiction and drug delivery to the brain. NIDA Res. Monogr. 1992, 120, 13.
20. G.F. Fleming, J.C. McElnay, C.M. Hughes . The separation of codeine from nonprescription combination analgesic products. Subst. Use Misuse 2003, 38, 1217.
21. E.J. Cone . Ephemeral profiles of prescription drug and formulation tampering: Evolving pseudoscience on the internet. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006, 83, S31.
22. S.H. Budman, J.M. Grimes-Serrano, S.F. Butler . Can abuse deterrent formulations make a difference? Expectation and speculation. Harm Reduct. J. 2009, 6, 8.
23. L. Webster . Update on abuse-resistant and abuse-deterrent approaches to opioid formulations. Pain Med. 2009, 10, S124.
24. S.K. Vosburg, J.D. Jones, J.M. Manubay, J.B. Ashworth, I.H. Benedek, S. Comer . Assessment of a formulation designed to be crush-resistant in prescription opioid abusers. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2012, 126, 206.
25. UNODC. The Global Afghan Opium Trade: A Threat Assessment. United Nations, Vienna, 2011.
26. INCB. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2012. United Nations, Vienna, 2012.
27. T. Boekhout van Solinge . L'héroïne, la cocaïne et le crack en France. Trafic, usage et politique. CEDRO Centrum voor Drugsonderzoek, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1996.
28. S.K. Mattoo, D. Basu, A. Sharma, M. Balaji, A. Malhotra . Abuse of codeine containing cough syrups: A report from India. Addiction 1997, 92, 1783.
29. M. Backmund, K.C. Henkel, M. Soyka, J. Reimer, C.G. Schutz . Co-consumption of benzodiazepines in heroin users, methadone- substituted and codeine-substituted patients. J. Addict. Dis. 2006, 24, 17.
30. D.T. Shek, C.M. Lam . Adolescent cough medicine abuse in Hong Kong: Implications for the design of positive youth development programs in Hong Kong. Int. J. Adolesc. Med. Health 2006, 18, 493.
31. Y. Yang, Q.Y. Yuan . Investigation and analysis on personalities of male-codeine phosphate addicts by MMPI. Chin J. Drugs Abuse Prev. Treat. 2008, 14, 143.
32. L.C. Bachs, J.G. Bramness, A. Engeland, S. Skurtveit . Repeated dispensing of codeine is associated with high consumption of benzodiazepines. Nor. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 18, 185.
33. Y.Z. Lao, Z.Y. Jiang, Z.S. Tong, Z.T. Pang, J.X. Xu . Clinical features and defense styles in patients with cough medicine abuse. Med. J. Chin People Health 2010, 22, 272.
34. H. Hou, S. Yin, S. Jia, S. Hu, T. Sun, Q. Chen, R. Fan . Decreased striatal dopamine transporters in codeine-containing cough syrup abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011, 118, 148.
35. J.D. Jones, S. Mogali, S.D. Comer . Polydrug abuse: A review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012, 125, 8.
36. J. Bell . The global diversion of pharmaceutical drugs: Opiate treatment and the diversion of pharmaceutical opiates: A clinician's perspective. Addiction 2010, 105, 1531.
37. K. Rapoza . Disturbing trend for Putin, Russian poverty rising. Forbes 2012. http://ww.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2012/04/12/disturbing-trend-for-put in-russian-poverty-rising/. [18 February 2014]
38. T. Rhodes, S. Bivol . 'Back then' and 'nowadays': Social transition narratives in accounts of injecting drug use in an East European setting. Soc. Sci. Med. 2012, 74, 425.
39. R. Heimer . Patterns of new drug emergence: A comment in light of 'krokodil'. Int. J. Drug Policy 2013, 24, 275.
40. H. Arksey, L. O'Malley . Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework'. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 2005, 8, 19.
41. D. Levac, H. Colquhoun, K.K. O'Brien . Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology. Implement. Sci. 2010, 5, 69.
42. H.M. Daudt, C. van Mossel, S. Scott . Enhancing the scoping study methodology: A large, inter-professional team's experience with Arksey and O'Malley's framework. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2013, 13, 48.
43. S. Green, J. Higgins . Glossary, in Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2005.
44. R. Pawson . Evidence-based policy: In search of a method. Evaluation 2002, 8, 157.
45. M. Kastner, A. Tricco, C. Soobian, E. Lillie, L. Perrier, T. Horsely, V. Welch, E. Cogo, J. Antony, S. Straus . What is the most appropriate knowledge synthesis method to conduct a review? Protocol for a scoping review. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2012, 12, 114.
46. R.B. Raffa, J.V. Pergolizzi . Opioid formulations designed to resist/deter abuse. Drugs 2010, 70, 1657.
47. S. Srimurugan, C.J. Su, H. Shum K. Murugan, C. Chen . A facile and improved synthesis of desomorphine and its deuterium-labeled analogue. Monatash. Chem. 2012, 143, 171.
48. M. Dobbin, R.F. Martyres, D. Clode, F.E. Champion De Crespigny . Association of benzodiazepine injection with the prescription of temazepam capsules. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2003, 22, 153.
49. E. Hamed, D. Moe . Development of tamper deterrent formulations: State of the pharmaceutical industry. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev. 2010, 3, 139.
50. L.K. Webster, P.G. Fine . Approaches to improve pain relief while minimizing opioid abuse liability. J. Pain 2010, 11, 602.
51. L. Webster, S. Marie, B. McCarberg, B. Passik, S.D. Panchal, S.J.E. Voth . Current status and evolving role of abuse-deterrent opioids in managing patients with chronic pain. J. Opioid Manage. 2011, 7, 235.
52. J.J. Coleman, C.R. Schuster, R.L. Dupont . Reducing the abuse potential of controlled substances. Pharm. Med. 2010, 24, 21.
53. T. Partanen, P. Vikatmaa, E. Tukiainen, M. Lepantalo, J. Vuola . Outcome after injections of crushed tablets in intravenous drug abusers in the Helsinki University Central Hospital'. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. 2009, 37, 704.
54. J.J. Coleman, P.B. Bensinger, M.S. Gold, D.E. Smith, R.P. Bianchi, R.L. Dupont . Can drug design inhibit abuse? J. Psychoact. Drugs. 2005, 37, 343.
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)-like illness associated with intravenous Opana ER abuse--Tennessee. MMWR 2013, 62, 1.
56. S.P. Vorce, B. Levine, P.C. McDonough, M.R. Past . An overdose death involving the insufflation of extended-release oxymorphone tablets. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2010, 34, 521.
57. I.M. McIntyre, J.L. Sherrard, C.L. Nelson . Case report: Oxymorphone-involved fatalities: A report of two cases. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2009, 33, 615.
58. M.K. Romach, K.A. Schoedel, E.M. Sellers . Update on tamper-resistant drug formulations. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2013, 130, 13.
59. H. Davis, C. Baum, D.J. Graham . Indices of drug misuse for prescription drugs. Int. J. Addict. 1991, 26, 777.
60. J.B. Gerostamoulos, M.P. Burke, O.H. Drummer . Involvement of codeine in drug-related deaths. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 1996, 17, 327.
61. M.K. Romach, B.A. Sproule, E.M. Sellers, G. Somer, U.E. Busto . Long-term codeine use is associated with depressive symptoms. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1999, 19, 373.
62. W. Compton, N. Volkow . Major increases in opioid analgesic abuse in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2005, 81, 103.
63. B.W. Blakley, H. Schilling . Deafness associated with acetaminophen and codeine abuse. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 2008, 37, 507.
64. N.S. Wairagkar, J. Das, S. Kumar, J. Mahanta, K. Saty Anarayana, R.K. Phukan, M. Chetia, S.K. Goswami . Codeine containing cough syrup addiction in Assam and Nagaland. Indian J. Psychiatry. 1994, 36, 129.
65. L.C.W. Lam, D.T.S. Lee, P.P.S. Shum, C.N. Chen . Cough mixture misuse in Hong Kong-An emerging psychiatric problem? Addiction 1996, 91, 1375.
66. D.T.L. Shek, C.M. Lam . Beliefs about cough medicine abuse among Chinese young people in Hong Kong. Soc. Behav. Pers. 2008, 36, 135.
67. I. Jun, Y. Yoshiko, M. Mitsukuni . Abuse of 'BRON': A Japanese OTC cough suppressant solution containing methylephedrine, codeine, caffeine and chlorpheniramine. Prog. Neuro-Psychoph. 1991, 15, 513.
68. G. Hickson, W. Altemeier, E. Clayton . Should promethazine in liquid form be available without prescription? Pediatrics 1990, 86, 221.
69. W. Elwood . Sticky business: Patterns of procurement and Misuse of Prescription Cough Syrup in Houston. J. Psychoact. Drugs 2001, 32, 121.
70. R.J. Peters, S.H. Kelder, C.M. Markham, G.S. Yacoubian, L.A. Peters, A. Ellis . Beliefs and social norms about codeine and promethazine hydrochloride cough syrup (CPHCS) onset and perceived addiction among urban Houstonian adolescents: An addiction trend in the city of lean. J. Drug Edu. 2003, 33, 415.
71. R.J. Peters, A. Meshack, C. Amos, K. Scott-Gurnell, C. Savage, K. Ford . The association of drug use and post-traumatic stress reactions due to Hurricane Ike among Fifth Ward Houstonian youth. J. Ethn. Subst. Abuse 2010, 9, 143.
72. R.J. Peters, C. Amos, A. Meshack, C. Savage, M.M. Sinclair, L.T. Williams, C. Markham . Codeine cough syrup use among sexually active, African-American high school youths: Why southern males are down to have sex. Am. J. Addict. 2007, 16, 144.
73. L. Agnich, J.M. Stogner, B.L. Miller, C. Marcum . Purple drank prevalence and characteristics of misusers of codeine cough syrup mixtures. Addict. Behav. 2013, 38, 2445.
74. W. Elwood . Leaning on Syrup: The Misuse of Opioid Cough Syrup in Houston. Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, Austin, TX, 1999.
75. M.N. Darboe . Abuse of dextromethorphan-based cough syrup as a substitute for licit and illicit drugs: A theoretical framework. Adolescence 1996, 31, 239.
76. C.M. Lam, D. Shek . A qualitative study of cough medicine abuse among Chinese young people in Hong Kong. J. Subst. Abuse 2006, 11, 233.
77. R.J. Peters, G.S. Yacoubian, W. Rhodes, K.J. Forsythe, K.S. Bowers, V.M. Eulian, C.A. Mangum, J.D. O'Neal, Q. Martin, E.J. Essien . Beliefs and social norms about codeine and promethazine hydrochloride cough syrup (CPHCS) use and addiction among multi-ethnic college students. J. Psychoactive Drugs 2007, 39, 277.
78. R.J. Peters, M. Ross, J. Atkinson, G.S. Yacoubian . Codeine cough syrup use among African-American crack cocaine users. J. Psychoactive Drugs 2007, 39, 97.
79. S. Chittrakarn, P. Penjamras, N. Keawpradub . Quantitative analysis of mitragynine, codeine, caffeine, chlorpheniramine and phenylephrine in a kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) cocktail using high-performance liquid chromatography. Forensic Sci. Int. 2012, 217, 81.
80. T. Arndt, U. Claussen, B. Gussregen, S. Schrofel, B. Sturzer, A. Werle, G. Wolf . Kratom alkaloids and O-desmethyltramadol in urine of a Krypton herbal mixture consumer. Forensic Sci. Int. 2011, 208, 47.
81. EMCDDA. Annual Report 2008: The state of the drugs problem in Europe. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, 2008.
82. G. Henderson . Designer drugs: Past history and future prospects. J. Forensic Sci. 1988, 33, 569.
83. V. Lelevich, A. Vintskaya, S. Lelevich . Annual Report: Republic of Belarus Drug Abuse and Illicit Drugs Trafficking in 2007. BUMAD Programme, Minsk, 2008.
84. A. Talu, K. Rajaleid, K. Abel-Ollo, K. Rüütel, M. Rahu, T. Rhodes, L. Platt, N. Bobrova, A. Uusküla . HIV infection and risk behaviour of primary fentanyl and amphetamine injectors in Tallinn, Estonia: Implications for intervention. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2010, 21, 56.
85. T. Zabransky . Methamphetamine in the Czech Republic. J. Drug Issues. 2007, 37, 649.
86. A. Renton, D. Gzirishvilli, G. Gotsadze, J. Godinho . Epidemics of HIV and sexually transmitted infections in Central Asia: Trends, drivers and priorities for control. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2006, 17, 494.
87. R.E. Booth, W. Lehman, C. Kwiatkowski, J. Brewster, L. Sinitsyna, S. Dvoryak . Stimulant injectors in Ukraine: The next wave of the epidemic? AIDS Behav. 2008, 12, 652.
88. L. Platt, T. Rhodes, M. Hickman, L. Mikhailova, K. Lisetsky, A. Sarang, K. Lewis, J. Parry . Changes in HIV prevalence and risk among new injecting drug users in a Russian city of high HIV prevalence. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2008, 47, 623.
89. T. Zabransky, J.P.C. Grund, A. Latypov, D. Otiashvili, R. Stuikyte, O. Scutelniciuc . Harm reduction in Central and Eastern Europe, in Harm Reduction in Substance Use and High-Risk Behaviour: International Policy and Practice Summaries, (Eds: R. Pates, D. Riley ). Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, 2012, pp. 301-321.
90. K. Eritsyan, R. Heimer, R. Barbour, V. Odinokova, E. White, MM. Rusakova, TT. Smolskaya, OS. Levina. Individual-, network-, and city-level factors associated with HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs in eight Russian cities. Brit. Med. J. 2013, 3, 6.
91. J.P.C. Grund, A.B. Latypov, M. Harris . Breaking worse: The emergence of Krokodile and excessive injuries among people who inject drugs in Eastern Europe. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2013, 24, 265.
92. P. Alcabes, M. Beniowski, J.P.C. Grund . Needle and syringe exchange in Poland and the former Soviet Union: A new approach to community-impact studies. J. Drug Issues 1999, 29, 861.
93. R. Chintalova-Dallas, P. Case, N. Kitsenko, Z. Lazzarine . Boltushka: Homemade amphetamine and HIV risk in Odessa, Ukraine. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2009, 20, 347.
94. L. Shulga, M. Varban, N. Pogorelaya, T. Andreyeva, A. Zamoshets, M. Ovcharenko-Fedorov . Research on behaviour and HIV prevalence among injecting stimulant users. Summary of the operational study findings. ICF, International HIV/AIDS Alliance in Ukraine, Kiev, 2010.
95. K. Barcal, J.E. Schumacher, K. Dumchev, L.V. Moroz . A situational picture of HIV/AIDS and injection drug use in Vinnitsya, Ukraine. Harm Reduct. J. 2005, 2, 16.
96. J.P.C. Grund, T. Zabransky, K. Irwin, R. Heimer . Stimulant use in Central and Eastern Europe: How recent social history shaped current drug consumption patterns, in Interventions for Amphetamine Misuse. (Eds: R. Pates, D. Riley ), Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, 2009, pp. 173-204.
97. D. Aretha . Methamphetamine and Amphetamines. Ernslow Publishers Inc., Berkeley Heights, NJ, 2005.
98. J.P.C. Grund, S. Merkinaite . Young people and injecting drug use in selected countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Eurasian Harm Reduction Network, Vilnius, 2009.
99. V. Mravčík, P. Chomynová, B. Orlíková, B., V. Mravčík, P. Chomynová, B. Orlíková, B.R. Pešek, K. Škarupová, E. Škrdlantová, L. Miovská, H. Gajdošíková, J. Vopravil . Výroční zpráva o stavu ve věcech drog 40 / 48 v České republice v roce 2007 [The Czech Republic: Drug situation 2007], Úřad vlády ČR, Praha [Office of the Czech Government, Prague], 2008.
100. N. Eddy, H. Howes . Studies of morphine, codeine and their derivatives X: Desoxymorphine-C, Desoxycodeine-C and their hydrogenated derivatives. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1935, 55, 257.
101. E. Mosettig, F.L. Cohen, L.F. Small . Desoxycodeine studies, III. The constitution of the so-called α-Dihydrodesoxycodeine: Bis-Dihydrodesoxycodeine1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1932, 54, 793.
102. S.A. Savchuk, S.S. Barsegyan, I.B. Barsegyan, G.M. Kolesov . Chromatographic study of expert and biological samples containing desomorphine. J. Anal. Chem. 2008, 63, 361.
103. UNODC. World Drug Report 2012. United Nations Publication, Vienna, 2012.
104. M. Gahr, R. Frudenmann, C. Hiemke, I. Gunst, B. Connemann, C. Schonfeldt-Lecuona . "Crocodile": A new drug? Nervenheilkunde 2012, 31, 69.
105. M. Gahr, R. Freudenmann, C. Hiemke, I. Gunst, B. Connemann, C. Schonfeldt-Lecuona . Desomorphine goes "crocodile". J. Addict. Dis. 2012, 31, 407.
106. M. Gahr, R. Freudenmann, C. Hiemke, I. Gunst, B. Connemann, C. Schonfeldt-Lecuona . "Krokodil": Revival of an old drug with new problems. Subst. Use Misuse 2012, 47, 861.
107. R. Skowronek, R. Celiński, C.A. Chowaniec . 'Crocodile' - new dangerous designer drug of abuse from the East. Clin. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 269.
108. U. Ibragimov, A. Latypov . Needle and syringe types used by people who inject drugs in Eastern Europe and Central Asia: Key findings from a rapid situation assessment. Eurasian Harm Reduction Network, Vilnius, 2012.
109. O. Yusopov, R. Akhmetova, N. Gafarova, A. Elizaryeva, Z. Ergaliev, G. Zhumataeva . National report on the drug situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2012 (Drug situation in 2011). National Scientific and Practical Centre on Medical and Social Problems of Drug Addiction and Central Asia Drug Action Programme, Astana and Prague, 2012.
110. G. Piralishvili, I. Gamkrelidze, N. Nikolaishvili, M. Chavchanidze . Needs assessment and treatment compliance at state opioid substitution treatment programes in Georgia. Georgian Med. News 2013, 214, 28.
111. P. Weill, U. Weiss . The structure of morphine. Chemistry of the totally or partially synthetic analgesics. UN Bull. Narc. 1951, 2, 12.
112. K.R. Bedford, S.L. Nolan, R. Onrust, J.D. Siegers . The illicit preparation of morphine and heroin from pharmaceutical products containing codeine: 'Homebake' laboratories in New Zealand. Forensic Sci. Int. 1987, 34, 197.
113. G.M. Robinson, P. Dukes, B. Robinson, R. Cooke, G. Mahoney . The misuse of buprenorphine and a buprenorphine-naloxone combination in Wellington New Zealand. Drug Alcohol Depen. 1993, 33, 81.
114. G.M. Robinson, R. Kemp, C. Lee, D. Cranston . Patients in methadone maintenance treatment who inject methadone syrup: A preliminary study. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2000, 19, 447.
115. M. Harris . The 'do-it-yourself' New Zealand injecting scene: Implications for harm reduction. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2013, 24, 282.
116. C. Wilkins, M. Girling, P. Sweetsur . Recent trends in illegal drug use in New Zealand, 2005-2007: Findings from the 2005, 2006 and 2007 Illicit Drug Monitoring System. Massey University Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Wellington, New Zealand, 2008.
117. R. Kemp, C. Aitken . The development of New Zealand's needle and syringe exchange Programme. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2004, 15, 202.
118. R.E. Booth, J. Kennedy, T. Brewster, O. Semerik . Drug injectors and dealers in Odessa, Ukraine. J. Psychoact. Drugs. 2003, 35, 419.
119. R.E. Booth, S.K. Mikulich-Gilbertson, J.T. Brewster, S. Salomonson-Sautel, O. Semerik . Predictors of self-reported HIV infection among drug injectors in Ukraine. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2004, 35, 82.
120. R.E. Booth, C.F. Kwiatkowski, J.T. Brewster, L. Sinitsyna, S. Dvoryak . Predictors of HIV sero-status among drug injectors at three Ukraine sites. AIDS 2006, 20, 2217.
121. R. Booth . 'Krokodil' and other home-produced drugs for injection: A perspective from Ukraine. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2013, 24, 275.
122. K.L. Dehne, J.P.C. Grund, L. Khodakevich, Y. Kobyshcha . The HIV/AIDS epidemic among drug injectors in Eastern Europe: Patterns, trends and determinants. J. Drug Issues. 1999, 29, 729.
123. J.P.C. Grund . A candle lit from both sides: The epidemic of HIV infection in Central and Eastern Europe, in HIV and AIDS: A Global View (Eds: K. McElrath ). Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 2002, pp. 41-68.
124. M. Miovský . Changing patterns of drug use in the Czech Republic during the post-communist era: A qualitative study. J. Drug Issues 2007, 37, 73.
125. T. Rhodes, G.V. Stimson, A. Quirk . Sex, drugs, intervention, and research: From the individual to the social. Subst. Use Misuse 1996, 31, 375.
126. A. Ball, S. Rana, K.L. Dehne . HIV prevention among injecting drug users: Responses in developing and transitional countries. Public Health Rep. 1998, 113, 170.
127. T. Rhodes, C. Lowndes, A. Judd, L.A. Mikhailova, A. Sarang, A. Rylkov, M. Tichonov, K. Lewis, N. Ulyanova, T. Alpatova, V. Karavashkin, M. Khutorskoy, J.V. Hickman, A. Renton . Explosive spread and high prevalence of HIV infection among injecting drug users in Togliatti City, Russia. AIDS 2002, 16, F25.
128. K.V. Dumchev, R. Soldyshev, H.Z. Qian, O. Zezyulin, S.D. Chandler, P. Slobodyanyuk, L. Moroz, J.E. Schumacher . HIV and hepatitis C virus infections among hanka injection drug users in central Ukraine: A cross-sectional survey. Harm Reduct. J. 2009, 6, 23.
129. R. Heimer, M. Kinzly, H. He, N. Abdala . The effect of acids on the survival of HIV during drug injection. AIDS 2007, 45, 144.
130. N. Abdala, J.P.C. Grund, Y. Tolstov, A.P. Kozlov, R. Heimer . Can homemade injectable opiates contribute to the HIV Epidemic among injection drug users in the countries of the Former Soviet Union? Addiction 2006, 101, 731.
131. T. Gawlikowski, L. Winnik . Guillain-Barre syndrome as a result of poisoning with a mixture of " kompot" (Polish heroin) and drugs. Przegl. Lek. 2001, 58, 357.
132. O.V. Demidova, S.O. Mokhachev . Brief report about 68 cases of desomorphine misuse. Narcologiya 2011, 10, 96.
133. T. Rhodes . Risk environments and drug harms: A social science for harm reduction approach. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2009, 20, 193.
134. B. Jose, S. Friedman, A. Neaigus, R. Curtis, J.P.C. Grund, M.F. Goldstein, T.P. Ward, D.C. Des Jarlais . Syringe-mediated drug sharing (backloading): A new risk factor for HIV among injecting drug users. AIDS 1993, 7, 1653.
135. M.G. Klous, W. Van den Brink, J.M. Van Ree, J.H. Beijnen . Development of pharmaceutical heroin preparations for medical co-prescription to opioid dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2005, 80, 283.
136. J.P.C. Grund, S. Friedman, L. Stern, B. Jose, A. Neaigus, R. Curtis, D.C. Des Jarlais . Syringe-mediated drug sharing among injecting drug users: Patterns, social context, and implications for transmission of blood-borne pathogens. Soc. Sci. Med. 1996, 42, 691.
137. W. Zule, K. Ticknor-Stellato, D. Desmond, K. Vogtsberger . Evaluation of needle and syringe combinations. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 1997, 14, 294.
138. W. Zule, D. Desmond, J. Neff . Syringe type and drug injector risk for HIV infection: A case study in Texas. Soc. Sci. Med. 2002, 55, 1103.
139. A. Gyarmathy, N. Li, K. Tobin, I.F. Hoffman, N. Sokolov, J. Levchenko, J. Batluk, A.A. Kozlov, A.P. Kozlov, C.A. Latkin . Correlates of unsafe injecting among injecting drug users in Petersburg, Russia. Eur. Addict. Res. 2009, 15, 163.
140. J. Perevoscikovs, I. Lucenko, S. Magone, A. Brila, J. Curikova, H. Vennema . Community-wide outbreak of hepatitis A in Latvia in 2008: An update. Euro Surveil. 2009, 14, 3.
141. M.J. Mimiaga, S.A. Safren, S. Dvoryak, S.L. Reisner, R. Needle, G. Woody . We fear the police, and the police fear us: Structural and individual barriers and facilitators to HIV medication adherence among injection drug users in Kiev, Ukraine. AIDS Care 2010, 22, 1305.
142. B.M. Mathers, L. Degenhardt, H. Ali, L. Wiessing, M. Hickman, R.P. Mattick, B. Myers, A. Ambekar, S. Strathdee . HIV prevention, treatment, and care services for people who inject drugs: A systematic review of global, regional, and national coverage. Lancet 2010, 375, 1014.
143. R. Pizzey, N. Hunt . Distributing foil from needle and syringe programmes (NSPs) to promote transitions from heroin injecting to chasing: an evaluation. Harm Reduct. J. 2008, 5, 24.
144. M.J. Bojko, S. Dvoriak, F.L. Altice . At the crossroads: HIV prevention and treatment for people who inject drugs in Ukraine. Addiction 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.12243.
145. D. Hedrich, T. Kerr, F. Dubois-Arber . Drug consumption facilities in Europe and beyond, in Harm Reduction: Evidence, Impacts and Challenges. (Eds: T. Rhodes, D. Hendrich), European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Scientific Monograph, Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 2010.
146. S.S. Alistar, D.K. Owens, M.L. Brandeau . Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of expanding harm reduction and antiretroviral therapy in a mixed HIV epidemic: A modeling analysis for Ukraine. PLoS Med. 2011, 8, e1000423.
147. A. Sarang, T. Rhodes, N. Sheon, K. Page . Policing drug users in Russia: Risk, fear and structural violence. Subst. Use Misuse 2010, 45, 813.
148. L.E. Grau, S. Arevalo, C. Catchpool, R. Heimer . And for the Diffusion of Benefit through Syringe Exchange Study Team. Expanding harm reduction services through a wound and abscess clinic. Am. J. Pub. Health. 2002, 92, 1915.
149. H.W. Harris, D.M. Young, C.H. Organ . Care of injection drug users with soft tissue infections in San Francisco, California. Arch. Surg. 2002, 137, 1217.
150. D. Wolfe . Paradoxes in antiretroviral treatment for injecting drug users: Access, adherence and structural barriers in Asia and the former Soviet Union. Int. J. Drug Pol. 2007, 18, 246.
151. D. Wolfe, M.P. Carrieri, D. Shepard . Treatment and care for injecting drug users with HIV infection: A review of barriers and ways forward. Lancet 2010, 376, 355.
152. R. Elovich, E. Drucker . On drug treatment and social control: Russian narcology's great leap backwards. Harm Reduct. J. 2008, 5, 23.