Life cycle assessment of metals: A scientific synthesis

PLoS ONE

Volumn 9, Issue 7, 2014, Pages

  Nuss, Philip ^a   Eckelman, Matthew J ^b  

^a Yale University   (United States)

^b Northeastern University   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALUMINUM; GOLD; IRON; MANGANESE; METAL; MINERAL; PLATINUM DERIVATIVE; TELLURIUM; THALLIUM; TITANIUM; CARBON DIOXIDE;

ARTICLE; CARBON FOOTPRINT; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; ENERGY RESOURCE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT; LIFE CYCLE STAGE; MINING; MONTE CARLO METHOD; PURIFICATION; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; CHEMISTRY; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; HUMAN;

CARBON DIOXIDE; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; GLOBAL WARMING; HUMANS; METALS; MINERALS;

EID: 84904390057     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101298     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Greenfield A, Graedel TE (2013) The omnivorous diet of modern technology. Resour Conserv Recycl 74: 1-7. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0921344913000396. Accessed 29 October 2013.
2. Graedel TE, Erdmann L (2012) Will metal scarcity impede routine industrial use? MRS Bull 37: 325-331. doi:10.1557/mrs.2012.34.
3. Van der Voet E, Salminen R, Eckelman M, Mudd G, Norgate T, et al. (2013) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles. A Report of the Working Group on the Global Metal Flows to the International Resource Panel. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
4. Kleijn R, van der Voet E, Kramer GJ, van Oers L, van der Giesen C (2011) Metal requirements of low-carbon power generation. Energy 36: 5640-5648. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544211004518. Accessed 24 July 2013.
5. Elshkaki A, Graedel TE (2013) Dynamic analysis of the global metals flows and stocks in electricity generation technologies. J Clean Prod. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652613004575. Accessed 24 July 2013.
6. Graedel TE, Harper EM, Nassar NT, Reck BK (2013) On the materials basis of modern society. Proc Natl Acad Sci: 201312752. Available: http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/11/27/1312752110. Accessed 16 December 2013.
7. Graedel TE, Allwood J, Birat J-P, Buchert M, Hagelüken C, et al. (2011) What Do We Know About Metal Recycling Rates? J Ind Ecol 15: 355-366. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00342.x/ abstract. Accessed 1 October 2012.
8. Chapman PF, Roberts F (1983) Metal resources and energy. Butterworths. 260 p.
9. Gupta CK (2004) Chemical Metallurgy. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/3527602003.fmatter/ summary. Accessed 24 July 2013.
10. IEA (2010) Energy Technology Perspectives 2010: Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. Paris: International Energy Agency (IEA). Available: http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/name,26100,en.html. Accessed 30 October 2013.
11. Norgate T, Jahanshahi S (2011) Reducing the greenhouse gas footprint of primary metal production: Where should the focus be? Miner Eng 24: 1563-1570. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S089268751100286X. Accessed 19 March 2013.
12. Norgate TE, Jahanshahi S, Rankin WJ (2007) Assessing the environmental impact of metal production processes. J Clean Prod 15: 838-848. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652606002320. Accessed 24 July 2013.
13. Norgate T, Jahanshahi S (2010) Low grade ores - Smelt, leach or concentrate? Miner Eng 23: 65-73. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0892687509002568. Accessed 24 July 2013.
14. Laznicka P (2006) Giant Metallic Deposits: Future Sources of Industrial Metals. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. Available: http://link.springer.com/book/ 10.1007/978-3-642-12405-1/page/1. Accessed 24 July 2013.
15. Verhoef EV, Dijkema GPJ, Reuter MA (2004) Process Knowledge, System Dynamics, and Metal Ecology. J Ind Ecol 8: 23-43. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1162/1088198041269382/abstract. Accessed 24 July 2013.
16. Erdmann L, Graedel TE (2011) Criticality of Non-Fuel Minerals: A Review of Major Approaches and Analyses. Environ Sci Technol 45: 7620-7630. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es200563g.
17. Graedel TE, Barr R, Chandler C, Chase T, Choi J, et al. (2012) Methodology of Metal Criticality Determination. Environ Sci Technol 46: 1063-1070. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es203534z.
18. Nuss P, Harper EM, Nassar NT, Reck BK, Graedel TE (2014) Criticality of Iron and Its Principal Alloying Elements. Environ Sci Technol 48: 4171-4177. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es405044w. Accessed 10 April 2014.
19. EC (2010) Critical raw materials for the EU. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission (EC). Available: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/ rawmaterials/documents/index-en.htm. Accessed 27 December 2012.
20. NRC (2008) Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the U.S. Economy.Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. 264 p.
21. EC (2014) Report on Critical Raw Materials for the EU. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission (EC). Available: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/ raw-materials/files/docs/crm-report-on-critical-raw-materials-en.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2014.
22. Nassar NT, Barr R, Browning M, Diao Z, Friedlander E, et al. (2012) Criticality of the Geological Copper Family. Environ Sci Technol 46: 1071-1078. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es203535w.
23. ISO (2006) Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment - Principles and Framework, ISO14040. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO.
24. ISO (2006) Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment - Requirements and Guidelines, ISO 14044. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO.
25. Classen M, Althaus H-J, Blaser S, Scharnhorst W, Tuchschmidt M, et al. (2009) Life Cycle Inventories of Metals, Data v2.0. Dübendorf, CH: Ecoinvent Centre, ETh Zurich.
26. Althaus H-J, Classen M (2005) Life Cycle Inventories of Metals and Methodological Aspects of Inventorying Material Resources in ecoinvent (7 pp). Int J Life Cycle Assess 10: 43-49. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/ content/x2118371742730hp/abstract/. Accessed 8 August 2012.
27. Ecoinvent (2010) Ecoinvent Life Cycle Inventory database v2.2. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories. Available: http://www.ecoinvent.ch/. Accessed 7 November 2010.
28. European Commission (2011) ELCD core database version II. Joint research Centre - LCA Tools, Services and Data. Available: http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ lcainfohub/datasetArea.vm. Accessed 31 May 2011.
29. NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) (2008) U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database (U.S. LCI), v1.6.0. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Available: http://www.nrel.gov/lci/database/. Accessed 26 January 2010.
30. TU . Delft (2001) IdEMAT Life Cycle Inventory Database. Available: http://www.idemat.nl/. Accessed 27 August 2012.
31. UBA (2010) ProBas - Lebenszyklusdatenbank [Life Cycle Inventory Database]. Dessau (Germany); Freiburg (Germany): Umweltbundesamt (German Federal Environmental Agency) and Öko-Institut. Available: http://www.probas. umweltbundesamt.de/php/index.php. Accessed 22 November 2010.
32. CPM (Centrum för Produktrelaterad Miljöanalys) (2010) CPM LCA Database. Goteborg, Sweden: Center for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material Systems (CPM), Chalmers University of Technology. Available: http://www.cpm.chalmers.se/CPMDatabase/. Accessed 22 November 2010.
33. PE International (2012) GaBi 6 life cycle inventory database. Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany: PE International. Available: http://databasedocumentation.gabi-software.com/america/support/gabi/ gabi-6-lcidocumentation/. Accessed 29 October 2013.
34. Granta Design (2012) Granta: CES Selector materials selection software. Available: http://www.grantadesign.com/products/ces/. Accessed 13 August 2012.
35. Sutter J (2007) Life Cycle Inventories of Highly Pure Chemicals. Dübendorf, CH: Ecoinvent Centre, ETh Zurich.
36. Althaus H-J, Hischier R, Osses M, Primas A, Hellweg S, et al. (2007) Life Cycle Inventories of Chemicals Data v2.0. Dübendorf, CH: Ecoinvent Centre, ETh Zurich.
37. Kellenberger D, Althaus HJ, Kuenniger T, Lehmann M (2007) Life Cycle Inventory of Building Products. Duebendorf, Switzerland.
38. Giegrich J, Liebich A, Lauwigi C, Reinhardt J (2012) Indikatoren/ Kennzahlen für den Rohstoffverbrauch im Rahmen der Nachhaltigkeits- diskussion. Dessau-Roblau, Germany: UMWELTBUNDESAMT. Available: http://www.uba.de/uba-info-medien/4237.html. Accessed 5 November 2012.
39. Häussinger P, Glatthaar R, Rhode W, Kick H, Benkmann C, et al. (2000) Noble Gases. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10. 1002/14356007.a17-485/abstract. Accessed 11 October 2013.
40. Gruber PW, Medina PA, Keoleian GA, Kesler SE, Everson MP, et al. (2011) Global Lithium Availability. J Ind Ecol 15: 760-775. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x/abstract. Accessed 9 May 2013.
41. USGS (2011) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/. Accessed 31 August 2012.
42. Cunningham LD (2004) Beryllium Recycling in the United States in 2000. In: Sibley SF, editor. Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the United States. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Available: http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1196p/c1196p.pdf. Accessed 28 August 2013.
43. Petzow G, Aldinger F, Jönsson S, Welge P, van Kampen V, et al. (2000) Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a04-011.pub2/abstract. Accessed 15 December 2012.
44. BeST (2013) Beryllium Facts and Figures. Beryllium Sci Technol Assoc BeST. Available: http://beryllium.eu/about-beryllium-and-beryllium-alloys/facts- and-figures/beryllium-extraction/. Accessed 28 August 2013.
45. Mc Neil D (2013) Beryllium. Roskill Mineral Services. Available: http://beryllium.eu/?wpfb-dl=30. Accessed 28 August 2013.
46. Materion (2013) Personal communication. Materion Corporation.
47. USGS (2008) 2008 Minerals Yearbook. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
48. Smith RA (2000) Boric Oxide, Boric Acid, and Borates. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a04-263/abstract. Accessed 10 October 2013.
49. Kenny M, Oates T (2007) Lime and Limestone. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a15-317.pub2/abstract. Accessed 9 September 2013.
50. Hluchan SE, Pomerantz K (2006) Calcium and Calcium Alloys. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a04-515.pub2/ abstract. Accessed 9 September 2013.
51. Vrana LM (2000) Calcium and Calcium Alloys. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available: http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.0301120308090202.a01. pub3/abstract. Accessed 4 September 2013.
52. World Bank (2012) World Data Bank. World Dev Indic WDI Glob Dev Finance GDF. Available: http://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step = 12&id = 4&CNO = 2. Accessed 31 October 2012.
53. USGS (2010) 2010 Minerals Yearbook. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
54. InfoMine (2011) Calcium Metal: Production, Market and Forecast in Russia and in the World. Moscow: InfoMine Research Group. Available: http://eng.infomine.ru/files/catalog/380/file-380-eng.pdf. Accessed 21 October 2013.
55. USGS (2009) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2009. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/. Accessed 31 August 2012.
56. McGill I (2000) Rare Earth Elements. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a22-607/abstract. Accessed 8 November 2012.
57. USGS (2012) 2012 Minerals Yearbook. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
58. Wang W, Pranolo Y, Cheng CY (2011) Metallurgical processes for scandium recovery from various resources: A review. Hydrometallurgy 108: 100-108. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304386X11000648. Accessed 6 September 2013.
59. USGS (2013) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2013. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/. Accessed 31 August 2012.
60. Ashby MF, Miller A, Rutter F, Seymour C, Wegst UGK (2012) CES EduPack for Eco Design - A White Paper. Cambridge, UK: Granta Design Ltd.
61. Woolery M (2000) Vanadium Compounds. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley. com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.2201140123151512.a01.pub2/abstract. Accessed 18 September 2012.
62. Liddell N, Spring S, Welch C, Lucas A (2011) Vanadium Sector Review. Ocean Equities Ltd. Available: http://www.niplats.com.au/media/articles/ Investor---Research/20110719-Ocean-Equities-Vanadium-Sector-Review---July-2011- 261/Vanadium-Thematic-Ocean-Equities-Research-July-2011.pdf. Accessed 18 September 2012.
63. RMG (2006) Raw Materials Data Software - The Mining Database. Stockholm, Sweden: Raw Materials Group.
64. Greber JF (2000) Gallium and Gallium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a12-163/abstract. Accessed 10 November 2012.
65. Grund SC, Hanusch K, Breunig HJ, Wolf HU (2000) Antimony and Antimony Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007. a03-055.pub2/abstract. Accessed 8 September 2012.
66. MacMillan JP, Park JW, Gerstenberg R, Wagner H, Köhler K, et al. (2000) Strontium and Strontium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a25-321/abstract. Accessed 9 September 2012.
67. Hibbins SG (2000) Strontium and Strontium Compounds. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.1920181508090202.a01.pub2/ abstract. Accessed 9 September 2012.
68. Coope B (2006) Spain's celestite celebration. Industrial Minerals (IM). Available: http://www.indmin.com/pdfs/697/67081/200607042.pdf. Accessed 3 September 2013.
69. Nielsen RH, Wilfing G (2000) Zirconium and Zirconium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a28-543.pub2/ abstract. Accessed 27 August 2012.
70. Gambogi J (2011) Zirconium and Hafnium. 2010 Minerals Yearbook. U.S. Geological Service (USGS).
71. Nielsen RH, Wilfing G (2000) Hafnium and Hafnium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a12-559.pub2/ abstract. Accessed 27 August 2012.
72. Lundberg M (2012) Environmental analysis of zirconium alloy production. Available: http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid =diva2:475527. Accessed 27 August 2012.
73. Cardarelli F (2008) Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference. Springer. 1365 p.
74. Miller GL (1954) Arc melting Kroll zirconium sponge. Vacuum 4: 168-175. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042207X54800066. Accessed 22 August 2012.
75. Munnoch S (2012) Hafnium. Minor Metals Trade Association (MMTA). Available: http://www.mmta.co.uk/uploaded-files/Hafnium%20MJ.pdf. Accessed 27 August 2012.
76. USGS (2011) Zirconium and Hafnium. 2011 Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/ zirconium/mcs-2011-zirco.pdf. Accessed 27 August 2012.
77. IAMGOLD (2009) Niobec Tour Presentation. IAMGOLD Corporation. Available: http://www.iamgold.com/Theme/IAmGold/files/presentations/ Niobec%20Tour%202009%20-%20%20Niobec%20Presentation%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 17 September 2012.
78. Albrecht S, Cymorek C, Eckert J (2000) Niobium and Niobium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a17-251. pub2/abstract. Accessed 16 September 2012.
79. IPPC (2001) Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Non Ferrous Metals Industries. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), European Commission. Available: http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/env/ippc- brefs/library?l = /bref-ferrous-metals-1/ferrous-metals-enpdf/-EN-1.0-&a = d. Accessed 15 September 2012.
80. BIO Intelligence Service (2010) Environmental Impacts of some Raw Materials through LCA Methods. Paris.
81. Graf GG (2000) Tin, Tin Alloys, and Tin Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a27-049/abstract. Accessed 10 November 2012.
82. Kresse R, Baudis U, Jäger P, Riechers HH, Wagner H, et al. (2000) Barium and Barium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/14356007.a03-325.pub2/abstract. Accessed 9 September 2012.
83. Chinese Society of Rare Earths (2010) Chinese Rare Earth Yearbook 2010 (in Chinese). Beijing, China.
84. Du X, Graedel TE (2011) Global In-Use Stocks of the Rare Earth Elements: A First Estimate. Environ Sci Technol 45: 4096-4101. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102836s. Accessed 22 September 2013.
85. Gupta CK, Krishnamurthy N (2004) Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths. CRC Press. 537 p.
86. Dahmus J, Gutowski T (2004) An environmental analysis of machining Anaheim, California, USA. Available: http://stuff.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/ course/2/2.810/www/ASME2004-62600.pdf. Accessed 8 April 2013.
87. Millensifer TA (2000) Rhenium and Rhenium Compounds. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.1808051420180509.a01.pub3/ abstract. Accessed 23 July 2013.
88. Vermaak CF (1995) Platinum-group metals: a global perspective. Mintek. 312 p.
89. CPM (2012) The CPM Platinum Group Metals Yearbook 2012. 26th ed. New York: Euromoney Books. Available: http://www.cpmgroup.com/shop/product/precious- metals/cpm-platinum-group-metals-yearbook-2012. Accessed 24 September 2013.
90. Johnson Matthey (2013) Platinum 2013. Royston, United Kingdom: Johnson Matthey.
91. Naldrett AJ (2011) Fundamentals of Magmatic Sulfide Deposits. In: Li C, Ripley EM, editors. Magmatic Ni-Cu and PGE deposits: geology, geochemistry, and genesis. Reviews in economic geology. Littleton, CO: Society of Economic Geologists. pp. 1-50.
92. USBM (1985) Mineral Facts and Problems: 1985 Edition. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Bureau of Mines.
93. DeVito SC, Brooks WE (2000) Mercury. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley. com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.1305180304052209.a01.pub2/abstract. Accessed 8 September 2012.
94. EC (2004) Mercury Flows in Europe and the World: The Impacts of Decommissioned Chlor-Alkali Plants. Brussels: European Commission. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/mercury/pdf/report.pdf. Accessed 8 September 2012.
95. Micke H, Wolf HU (2000) Thallium and Thallium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a26-607/abstract. Accessed 8 September 2012.
96. USGS (1999) Metal Prices in the United States Through 1998. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/metal- prices/metal-prices1998.pdf. Accessed 5 November 2012.
97. Sutherland CA, Milner EF, Kerby RC, Teindl H, Melin A, et al. (2000) Lead. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007. a15-193.pub2/abstract. Accessed 31 May 2013.
98. Naumov A (2007) World market of bismuth: A review. Russ J Non-Ferr Met 48: 10-16. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/n300673l6p7n271n/ abstract/. Accessed 7 September 2012.
99. Andrae ASG, Itsubo N, Yamaguchi H, Inaba A (2008) Life Cycle Assessment of Japanese High-Temperature Conductive Adhesives. Environ Sci Technol 42: 3084-3089. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es0709829.
100. Stoll W (2000) Thorium and Thorium Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a27-001/abstract. Accessed 27 August 2012.
101. Cuney M (2012) Uranium and Thorium: The Extreme Diversity of the Resources of the World's Energy Minerals. In: Sinding-Larsen R, Wellmer FW, editors. Non-Renewable Resource Issues. International Year of Planet Earth. Springer Netherlands. pp. 91-129. Available: http://link.springer.com/chapter/ 10.1007/978-90-481-8679-2-6. Accessed 21 March 2013.
102. Schmidt G (2013) Description and critical environmental evaluation of the REE refining plant LAMP near Kuantan/Malaysia. Darmstadt, Germany: Oeko Institute e.V. Available: http://www.oeko.de/oekodoc/1628/2013-001-en.pdf. Accessed 18 March 2013.
103. Thomson Reuters (2012) World Silver Survey 2012 - A Summary. Washington D.C.: The Silver Institute. Available: https://www.silverinstitute.org/site/ wpcontent/uploads/2012/07/wss12sum.pdf. Accessed 22 October 2013.
104. USGS (2012) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2012. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Available: http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/. Accessed 31 August 2012.
105. Goedkoop M, Oele M, de Sch A, Vieira M (2008) SimaPro Database Manual - Methods library. Netherlands: PRé Consultants. Available: http://www.pre.nl/download/manuals/DatabaseManualMethods.pdf. Accessed 30 November 2010.
106. Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, De Schryver A, Struijs J, et al. (2009) ReCiPe 2008, A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level; First edition Report I: Characterisation. Available: http://www.lcia-recipe.net. Accessed 27 March 2010.
107. Rosenbaum RK, Bachmann TM, Gold LS, Huijbregts MAJ, Jolliet O, et al. (2008) USEtox - the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess 13: 532-546. Available: http://link. springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-008-0038-4. Accessed 6 April 2014.
108. Doka G (2008) Life Cycle Inventory data ofmining waste:Emissions from sulfidic tailings disposal. Zürich, Switzerland: Doka Life Cycle Assessments. Available: http://www.doka.ch/SulfidicTailingsDisposalDoka.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.
109. IEA (2008) Energy Technology Perspectives 2008: Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. Paris: International Energy Agency (IEA). Available: http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/name,3771,en.html. Accessed 29 November 2013.
110. IEA (2007) Tracking Industrial Energy Efficiency and CO2 Emissions. ISBN: 978-92-64-03016-9. Paris: International Energy Agency. Available: http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2007/tracking-emissions.pdf. Accessed 3 January 2010.
111. IEA (2010) World Energy Outlook 2010. Paris, France: International Energy Agency (IEA). Available: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weo2010.pdf. Accessed 24 January 2014.
112. Yellishetty M, Haque N, Dubreuil A (2012) Issues and Challenges in Life Cycle Assessment in the Minerals and Metals Sector: A Chance to Improve Raw Materials Efficiency. In: Sinding-Larsen R, Wellmer F-W, editors. Non-Renewable Resource Issues. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 229-246. Available: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-8679-2-12?null. Accessed 8 October 2012.
113. Bastian M, Heymann S, Jacomy M (2009) Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. Int AAAI Conf Weblogs Soc Media.
114. Allwood JM, Cullen JM, Milford RL (2010) Options for Achieving a 50% Cut in Industrial Carbon Emissions by 2050. Environ Sci Technol 44: 1888-1894. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es902909k. Accessed 13 May 2013.
115. Beardslee WR, Wright EJ, Gladstone TRG, Forbes P. Long-term effects from a randomized trial of two public health preventive interventions for parental depression. J Fam Psychol. 2007;21(4):703-713.