메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 40, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 621-631

Caught between Parasitoids and Predators - Survival of a Specialist Herbivore on Leaves and Flowers of Mustard Plants

Author keywords

Florivory; Foraging behavior; Herbivore induced plant volatiles; Parasitic wasps; Social wasps

Indexed keywords

BUTTERFLY; FLOWER; GENERALIST; LEAF; MOVEMENT; PARASITISM; PARASITOID; PLANT-HERBIVORE INTERACTION; PREDATION RISK; SOCIAL INSECT; SPECIALIST; SURVIVAL; VEGETABLE; WASP;

EID: 84904188977     PISSN: 00980331     EISSN: 15731561     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10886-014-0454-9     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (34)

References (55)
  • 1
    • 78650523072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Leaf and floral parts feeding by orange tip butterfly larvae depends on larval position but not on glucosinolate profile or nitrogen level
    • Agerbirk N, Chew FS, Olsen CE, Jørgensen K (2011) Leaf and floral parts feeding by orange tip butterfly larvae depends on larval position but not on glucosinolate profile or nitrogen level. J Chem Ecol 36: 1335-1345.
    • (2011) J Chem Ecol , vol.36 , pp. 1335-1345
    • Agerbirk, N.1    Chew, F.S.2    Olsen, C.E.3    Jørgensen, K.4
  • 2
    • 73649086186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Folivory versus florivory - adaptiveness of flower feeding
    • Bandeili B, Müller C (2010) Folivory versus florivory - adaptiveness of flower feeding. Naturwissenschaften 97: 79-88.
    • (2010) Naturwissenschaften , vol.97 , pp. 79-88
    • Bandeili, B.1    Müller, C.2
  • 3
    • 0030614115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The slow growth high mortality hypothesis: a test using the cabbage butterfly
    • Benrey B, Denno RF (1997) The slow growth high mortality hypothesis: a test using the cabbage butterfly. Ecology 78: 987-999.
    • (1997) Ecology , vol.78 , pp. 987-999
    • Benrey, B.1    Denno, R.F.2
  • 4
    • 0029661645 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of plant chemical extracts and physical characteristics of apium graveolens and chenopodium murale on host choice by spodoptera exigua larvae
    • Berdegue M, Trumble JT (1996) Effects of plant chemical extracts and physical characteristics of apium graveolens and chenopodium murale on host choice by spodoptera exigua larvae. Entomol Exp Appl 78: 253-262.
    • (1996) Entomol Exp Appl , vol.78 , pp. 253-262
    • Berdegue, M.1    Trumble, J.T.2
  • 5
    • 0024250656 scopus 로고
    • Host specificity in phytophagous insects: selection pressure from generalist predators
    • Bernays EA (1988) Host specificity in phytophagous insects: selection pressure from generalist predators. Entomol Exp Appl 49: 131-140.
    • (1988) Entomol Exp Appl , vol.49 , pp. 131-140
    • Bernays, E.A.1
  • 6
    • 43449091571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Orchids mimic green-leaf volatiles to attract prey-hunting wasps for pollination
    • Brodmann J, Twele R, Francke W, Holzler G, Zhang QH, Ayasse M (2008) Orchids mimic green-leaf volatiles to attract prey-hunting wasps for pollination. Curr Biol 18: 740-744.
    • (2008) Curr Biol , vol.18 , pp. 740-744
    • Brodmann, J.1    Twele, R.2    Francke, W.3    Holzler, G.4    Zhang, Q.H.5    Ayasse, M.6
  • 7
    • 67650732898 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reproductive biology of Datura wrightii: the benefits of a herbivorous pollinator
    • Bronstein JL, Huxman T, Horvath B, Farabee M, Davidowitz G (2009) Reproductive biology of Datura wrightii: the benefits of a herbivorous pollinator. Ann Bot 103: 1435-1443.
    • (2009) Ann Bot , vol.103 , pp. 1435-1443
    • Bronstein, J.L.1    Huxman, T.2    Horvath, B.3    Farabee, M.4    Davidowitz, G.5
  • 9
    • 33847301079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Predator avoidance in phytophagous mites: response to present danger depends on alternative host quality
    • Choh Y, Takabayashi J (2007) Predator avoidance in phytophagous mites: response to present danger depends on alternative host quality. Oecologia 151: 262-267.
    • (2007) Oecologia , vol.151 , pp. 262-267
    • Choh, Y.1    Takabayashi, J.2
  • 10
    • 0023509656 scopus 로고
    • Rapid herbivore growth enhances enemy attack - Sublethal plant responses remain a paradox
    • Clancy KM, Price PW (1987) Rapid herbivore growth enhances enemy attack - Sublethal plant responses remain a paradox. Ecology 68: 733-737.
    • (1987) Ecology , vol.68 , pp. 733-737
    • Clancy, K.M.1    Price, P.W.2
  • 11
    • 42649126745 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Foraging behaviour in Vespula germanica wasps re-locating a food source
    • D'Adamo P, Lozada M (2008) Foraging behaviour in Vespula germanica wasps re-locating a food source. N Z J Zool 35: 9-17.
    • (2008) N Z J Zool , vol.35 , pp. 9-17
    • D'Adamo, P.1    Lozada, M.2
  • 12
    • 77957943570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of volatiles from Maruca vitrata larvae and caterpillar-infested flowers of their host plant Vigna unguiculata on the foraging behavior of the parasitoid Apanteles taragamae
    • Dannon EA, Tamo M, Av H, Dicke M (2010) Effects of volatiles from Maruca vitrata larvae and caterpillar-infested flowers of their host plant Vigna unguiculata on the foraging behavior of the parasitoid Apanteles taragamae. J Chem Ecol 36: 1083-1091.
    • (2010) J Chem Ecol , vol.36 , pp. 1083-1091
    • Dannon, E.A.1    Tamo, M.2    Av, H.3    Dicke, M.4
  • 13
    • 0042816216 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Predation risk affects relative strength of top-down and bottom-up impacts on insect herbivores
    • Denno RF, Gratton C, Dobel H, Finke DL (2003) Predation risk affects relative strength of top-down and bottom-up impacts on insect herbivores. Ecology 84: 1032-1044.
    • (2003) Ecology , vol.84 , pp. 1032-1044
    • Denno, R.F.1    Gratton, C.2    Dobel, H.3    Finke, D.L.4
  • 14
    • 0035672816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chemical detection of natural enemies by arthropods: an ecological perspective
    • Dicke M, Grostal P (2001) Chemical detection of natural enemies by arthropods: an ecological perspective. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 32: 1-23.
    • (2001) Annu Rev Ecol Syst , vol.32 , pp. 1-23
    • Dicke, M.1    Grostal, P.2
  • 15
    • 83755185711 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mechanisms of optimal defense patterns in Nicotiana attenuata: flowering attenuates herbivory-elicited ethylene and jasmonate signaling
    • Diezel C, Allmann S, Baldwin IT (2011) Mechanisms of optimal defense patterns in Nicotiana attenuata: flowering attenuates herbivory-elicited ethylene and jasmonate signaling. J Integr Plant Biol 53: 971-983.
    • (2011) J Integr Plant Biol , vol.53 , pp. 971-983
    • Diezel, C.1    Allmann, S.2    Baldwin, I.T.3
  • 16
    • 48549101964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Influence of green leaf herbivory by Manduca sexta on floral volatile emission by Nicotiana suaveolens
    • Effmert U, Dinse C, Piechulla B (2008) Influence of green leaf herbivory by Manduca sexta on floral volatile emission by Nicotiana suaveolens. Plant Physiol 146: 1996-2007.
    • (2008) Plant Physiol , vol.146 , pp. 1996-2007
    • Effmert, U.1    Dinse, C.2    Piechulla, B.3
  • 18
    • 0141514993 scopus 로고
    • Host species affecting the performance of the larval parasitoids Cotesia glomerata and C. rubecula (Hymenoptera: braconidae). II. comparative suitability of three Pieris species (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
    • Geervliet JBF, Brodeur J (1992) Host species affecting the performance of the larval parasitoids Cotesia glomerata and C. rubecula (Hymenoptera: braconidae). II. comparative suitability of three Pieris species (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Med Fac Landbouww Univ Gent 57: 547-550.
    • (1992) Med Fac Landbouww Univ Gent , vol.57 , pp. 547-550
    • Geervliet, J.B.F.1    Brodeur, J.2
  • 19
    • 1942424986 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The significance of bottom-up effects for host plant specialization in Chrysomela leaf beetles
    • Gross J, Fatouros NE, Hilker M (2004) The significance of bottom-up effects for host plant specialization in Chrysomela leaf beetles. Oikos 105: 368-376.
    • (2004) Oikos , vol.105 , pp. 368-376
    • Gross, J.1    Fatouros, N.E.2    Hilker, M.3
  • 20
    • 78650521571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ontogeny and season constrain the production of herbivore-inducible plant volatiles in the field
    • Hare JD (2010) Ontogeny and season constrain the production of herbivore-inducible plant volatiles in the field. J Chem Ecol 36: 1363-1374.
    • (2010) J Chem Ecol , vol.36 , pp. 1363-1374
    • Hare, J.D.1
  • 21
    • 0000603768 scopus 로고
    • Revised growth stage key for Brassica campestris and Brassica napus
    • Harper FR, Berkenkamp B (1975) Revised growth stage key for Brassica campestris and Brassica napus. Can J Plant Sci 55: 657-658.
    • (1975) Can J Plant Sci , vol.55 , pp. 657-658
    • Harper, F.R.1    Berkenkamp, B.2
  • 22
    • 0025526144 scopus 로고
    • Host specialization in phytophagous insects
    • Jaenike J (1990) Host specialization in phytophagous insects. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 21: 243-273.
    • (1990) Annu Rev Ecol Syst , vol.21 , pp. 243-273
    • Jaenike, J.1
  • 23
    • 40149107276 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Emission of oilseed rape volatiles after pollen beetle infestation; behavioural and electrophysiological responses in the parasitoid Phradis morionellus
    • Jonsson M, Anderson P (2008) Emission of oilseed rape volatiles after pollen beetle infestation; behavioural and electrophysiological responses in the parasitoid Phradis morionellus. Chemoecology 17: 201-207.
    • (2008) Chemoecology , vol.17 , pp. 201-207
    • Jonsson, M.1    Anderson, P.2
  • 24
    • 70349320375 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Testing the potential for conflicting selection on floral chemical traits by pollinators and herbivores: predictions and case study
    • Kessler A, Halitschke R (2009) Testing the potential for conflicting selection on floral chemical traits by pollinators and herbivores: predictions and case study. Funct Ecol 23: 901-912.
    • (2009) Funct Ecol , vol.23 , pp. 901-912
    • Kessler, A.1    Halitschke, R.2
  • 25
    • 79961168454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Herbivory-mediated pollinator limitation: negative impacts of induced volatiles on plant-pollinator interactions
    • Kessler A, Halitschke R, Poveda K (2011) Herbivory-mediated pollinator limitation: negative impacts of induced volatiles on plant-pollinator interactions. Ecology 92: 1769-1780.
    • (2011) Ecology , vol.92 , pp. 1769-1780
    • Kessler, A.1    Halitschke, R.2    Poveda, K.3
  • 26
    • 41149142335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Role of food source and predator avoidance in habitat specialization by an octocoral-associated amphipod
    • Kumagai NH (2008) Role of food source and predator avoidance in habitat specialization by an octocoral-associated amphipod. Oecologia 155: 739-749.
    • (2008) Oecologia , vol.155 , pp. 739-749
    • Kumagai, N.H.1
  • 27
    • 33845698284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Food quality, competition, and parasitism influence feeding preference in a neotropical Lepidopteran
    • Kursar TA, Wolfe BT, Epps MJ, Coley PD (2006) Food quality, competition, and parasitism influence feeding preference in a neotropical Lepidopteran. Ecology 87: 3058-3069.
    • (2006) Ecology , vol.87 , pp. 3058-3069
    • Kursar, T.A.1    Wolfe, B.T.2    Epps, M.J.3    Coley, P.D.4
  • 28
    • 0035026673 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The effects of leaf quality on herbivore performance and attack from natural enemies
    • Lill JT, Marquis RJ (2001) The effects of leaf quality on herbivore performance and attack from natural enemies. Oecologia 126: 418-428.
    • (2001) Oecologia , vol.126 , pp. 418-428
    • Lill, J.T.1    Marquis, R.J.2
  • 29
    • 0025252617 scopus 로고
    • Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus
    • Lima SL, Dill LM (1990) Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Can J Zool 68: 619-640.
    • (1990) Can J Zool , vol.68 , pp. 619-640
    • Lima, S.L.1    Dill, L.M.2
  • 30
    • 79960730391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The effects of herbivore-induced plant volatiles on interactions between plants and flower-visiting insects
    • Lucas-Barbosa D, van Loon JJA, Dicke M (2011) The effects of herbivore-induced plant volatiles on interactions between plants and flower-visiting insects. Phytochemistry 72: 1647-1654.
    • (2011) Phytochemistry , vol.72 , pp. 1647-1654
    • Lucas-Barbosa, D.1    van Loon, J.J.A.2    Dicke, M.3
  • 31
    • 84873085437 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reproductive escape: annual plant responds to butterfly eggs by accelerating seed production
    • Lucas-Barbosa D, van Loon JJA, Gols R, van Beek TA, Dicke M (2013) Reproductive escape: annual plant responds to butterfly eggs by accelerating seed production. Funct Ecol 27: 245-254.
    • (2013) Funct Ecol , vol.27 , pp. 245-254
    • Lucas-Barbosa, D.1    van Loon, J.J.A.2    Gols, R.3    van Beek, T.A.4    Dicke, M.5
  • 32
    • 0033378609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Importance of floral phenology and florivory for tetraopes tetraophthalmus (coleoptera: cerambycidae): tests at the population and individual level
    • Matter SF, Landry JB, Greco AM, Lacourse CD (1999) Importance of floral phenology and florivory for tetraopes tetraophthalmus (coleoptera: cerambycidae): tests at the population and individual level. Environ Entomol 28: 1044-1051.
    • (1999) Environ Entomol , vol.28 , pp. 1044-1051
    • Matter, S.F.1    Landry, J.B.2    Greco, A.M.3    Lacourse, C.D.4
  • 33
    • 0028152003 scopus 로고
    • Induction of parasitoid attracting synomone in brussels sprouts plants by feeding of Pieris brassicae larvae: role of mechanical damage and herbivore elicitor
    • Mattiacci L, Dicke M, Posthumus MA (1994) Induction of parasitoid attracting synomone in brussels sprouts plants by feeding of Pieris brassicae larvae: role of mechanical damage and herbivore elicitor. J Chem Ecol 20: 2229-2247.
    • (1994) J Chem Ecol , vol.20 , pp. 2229-2247
    • Mattiacci, L.1    Dicke, M.2    Posthumus, M.A.3
  • 34
    • 33751201516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Florivory: the intersection of pollination and herbivory
    • McCall AC, Irwin RE (2006) Florivory: the intersection of pollination and herbivory. Ecol Lett 9: 1351-1365.
    • (2006) Ecol Lett , vol.9 , pp. 1351-1365
    • McCall, A.C.1    Irwin, R.E.2
  • 35
    • 5144221262 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A recently acquired host plant provides an oligophagous insect herbivore with enemy-free space
    • Mulatu B, Applebaum SW, Coll M (2004) A recently acquired host plant provides an oligophagous insect herbivore with enemy-free space. Oikos 107: 231-238.
    • (2004) Oikos , vol.107 , pp. 231-238
    • Mulatu, B.1    Applebaum, S.W.2    Coll, M.3
  • 36
    • 77954943890 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Variation in natural plant products and the attraction of bodyguards for indirect plant defense
    • Mumm R, Dicke M (2010) Variation in natural plant products and the attraction of bodyguards for indirect plant defense. Can J Zool 88: 628-667.
    • (2010) Can J Zool , vol.88 , pp. 628-667
    • Mumm, R.1    Dicke, M.2
  • 37
    • 11144247768 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Enemy-free space maintains swallowtail butterfly host shift
    • Murphy SM (2004) Enemy-free space maintains swallowtail butterfly host shift. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101: 18048-18052.
    • (2004) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A , vol.101 , pp. 18048-18052
    • Murphy, S.M.1
  • 38
    • 0028176209 scopus 로고
    • Food plant choice of Pieris butterflies as a trade-off between parasitoid avoidance and quality of plants
    • Ohsaki N, Sato Y (1994) Food plant choice of Pieris butterflies as a trade-off between parasitoid avoidance and quality of plants. Ecology 75: 59-68.
    • (1994) Ecology , vol.75 , pp. 59-68
    • Ohsaki, N.1    Sato, Y.2
  • 40
    • 84878365742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Generalist insects behave in a jasmonate-dependent manner on their host plants, leaving induced areas quickly and staying longer on distant parts
    • Perkins LE, Cribb BW, Brewer PB, Hanan J, Grant M, de Torres M, Zalucki MP (2013) Generalist insects behave in a jasmonate-dependent manner on their host plants, leaving induced areas quickly and staying longer on distant parts. Proc Royal Soc B 280.
    • (2013) Proc Royal Soc B , pp. 280
    • Perkins, L.E.1    Cribb, B.W.2    Brewer, P.B.3    Hanan, J.4    Grant, M.5    de Torres, M.6    Zalucki, M.P.7
  • 42
    • 0038243043 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of below- and above-ground herbivores on plant growth, flower visitation and seed set
    • Poveda K, Steffan-Dewenter I, Scheu S, Tscharntke T (2003) Effects of below- and above-ground herbivores on plant growth, flower visitation and seed set. Oecologia 135: 601-605.
    • (2003) Oecologia , vol.135 , pp. 601-605
    • Poveda, K.1    Steffan-Dewenter, I.2    Scheu, S.3    Tscharntke, T.4
  • 43
    • 58549107839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wake up and smell the roses: the ecology and evolution of floral scent
    • Raguso RA (2008) Wake up and smell the roses: the ecology and evolution of floral scent. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 39: 549-569.
    • (2008) Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst , vol.39 , pp. 549-569
    • Raguso, R.A.1
  • 44
    • 34249739572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Predatory behavior of Polistes dominulus wasps in response to cardenolides and glucosinolates in Pieris napi caterpillars
    • Rayor LS, Mooney LJ, Renwick JA (2007) Predatory behavior of Polistes dominulus wasps in response to cardenolides and glucosinolates in Pieris napi caterpillars. J Chem Ecol 33: 1177-1185.
    • (2007) J Chem Ecol , vol.33 , pp. 1177-1185
    • Rayor, L.S.1    Mooney, L.J.2    Renwick, J.A.3
  • 45
    • 77956481347 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hildebrand JG (2010) Antagonistic effects of floral scent in an insect-plant interaction
    • Reisenman CE, Riffell JA, Bernays EA (2010) Hildebrand JG (2010) Antagonistic effects of floral scent in an insect-plant interaction. Proc Royal Soc London 277: 2371-2379.
    • (2010) Proc Royal Soc London , vol.277 , pp. 2371-2379
    • Reisenman, C.E.1    Riffell, J.A.2    Bernays, E.A.3
  • 46
    • 0034072271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) foraging behavior
    • Richter MR (2000) Social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) foraging behavior. Annu Rev Entomol 45: 121-150.
    • (2000) Annu Rev Entomol , vol.45 , pp. 121-150
    • Richter, M.R.1
  • 47
    • 12144288847 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Volatiles released from cotton plants in response to Helicoverpa zea feeding damage on cotton flower buds
    • Röse USR, Tumlinson JH (2004) Volatiles released from cotton plants in response to Helicoverpa zea feeding damage on cotton flower buds. Planta 218: 824-832.
    • (2004) Planta , vol.218 , pp. 824-832
    • Röse, U.S.R.1    Tumlinson, J.H.2
  • 49
    • 4544267523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disentangling food quality from resistance against parasitoids: diet choice by a generalist caterpillar
    • Singer MS, Carriere Y, Theuring C, Hartmann T (2004a) Disentangling food quality from resistance against parasitoids: diet choice by a generalist caterpillar. Am Nat 164: 423-429.
    • (2004) Am Nat , vol.164 , pp. 423-429
    • Singer, M.S.1    Carriere, Y.2    Theuring, C.3    Hartmann, T.4
  • 50
    • 7544229366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roles of food quality and enemy-free space in host use by a generalist insect herbivore
    • Singer MS, Rodrigues D, Stireman JO, Carriere Y (2004b) Roles of food quality and enemy-free space in host use by a generalist insect herbivore. Ecology 85: 2747-2753.
    • (2004) Ecology , vol.85 , pp. 2747-2753
    • Singer, M.S.1    Rodrigues, D.2    Stireman, J.O.3    Carriere, Y.4
  • 51
    • 35348841561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Flower vs. leaf feeding by Pieris brassicae: Glucosinolate-rich flower tissues are preferred and sustain higher growth rate
    • Smallegange RC, van Loon JJA, Blatt SE, Harvey JA, Agerbirk N, Dicke M (2007) Flower vs. leaf feeding by Pieris brassicae: Glucosinolate-rich flower tissues are preferred and sustain higher growth rate. J Chem Ecol 33: 1831-1844.
    • (2007) J Chem Ecol , vol.33 , pp. 1831-1844
    • Smallegange, R.C.1    van Loon, J.J.A.2    Blatt, S.E.3    Harvey, J.A.4    Agerbirk, N.5    Dicke, M.6
  • 53
    • 12744261147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pheromone-mediated aggregation in nonsocial arthropods: an evolutionary ecological perspective
    • Wertheim B, van Baalen EJA, Dicke M, Vet LEM (2005) Pheromone-mediated aggregation in nonsocial arthropods: an evolutionary ecological perspective. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 321-346.
    • (2005) Annu Rev Entomol , vol.50 , pp. 321-346
    • Wertheim, B.1    van Baalen, E.J.A.2    Dicke, M.3    Vet, L.E.M.4
  • 54
    • 0032725103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Slow-growth, high-mortality - a general hypothesis, or is it?
    • Williams IS (1999) Slow-growth, high-mortality - a general hypothesis, or is it? Ecol Entomol 24: 490-495.
    • (1999) Ecol Entomol , vol.24 , pp. 490-495
    • Williams, I.S.1
  • 55
    • 68349092778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of florivory on floral volatile emissions and pollination success in the wild parsnip
    • Zangerl AR, Berenbaum MR (2009) Effects of florivory on floral volatile emissions and pollination success in the wild parsnip. Arthropod Plant Interact 3: 181-191.
    • (2009) Arthropod Plant Interact , vol.3 , pp. 181-191
    • Zangerl, A.R.1    Berenbaum, M.R.2


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.