Innate immune-response mechanisms in dermatomyositis: An update on pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment

Drugs

Volumn 74, Issue 9, 2014, Pages 981-998

  Hornung, Thorsten ^a   Wenzel, Joerg ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABATACEPT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; AUTOANTIBODY; AZATHIOPRINE; CHLOROQUINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN; DEXAMETHASONE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; INTERFERON; METHOTREXATE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PREDNISONE; RITUXIMAB; SIFALIMUMAB; SUNSCREEN; TACROLIMUS; IMMUNOLOGIC FACTOR; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT;

DERMATOMYOSITIS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; IMMUNOGENETICS; IMMUNOHISTOLOGY; INNATE IMMUNITY; LICHENOID; MUSCLE INJURY; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SKIN DEFECT; DRUG EFFECTS; IMMUNOLOGY;

HELIOTROPIUM;

DERMATOMYOSITIS; HUMANS; IMMUNITY, INNATE; IMMUNOLOGIC FACTORS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS;

EID: 84904065723     PISSN: 00126667     EISSN: 11791950     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40265-014-0240-6     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Krathen MS, Fiorentino D, Werth VP. Dermatomyositis. Curr Dir Autoimmun. 2008;10:313-32.
2. Euwer RL, Sontheimer RD. Amyopathic dermatomyositis (dermatomyositis sine myositis). Presentation of six new cases and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1991;24(6 Pt 1):959-66.
3. Bohan A, Peter JB. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis (first of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1975;292(7):344-7.
4. Gordon PA, Winer JB, Hoogendijk JE, Choy EH. Immunosuppressant and immunomodulatory treatment for dermatomyositis and polymyositis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;8:CD003643.
5. Crowson AN, Magro CM. The role of microvascular injury in the pathogenesis of cutaneous lesions of dermatomyositis. Hum Pathol. 1996;27(1):15-9.
6. Kissel JT, Mendell JR, Rammohan KW. Microvascular deposition of complement membrane attack complex in dermatomyositis. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(6):329-34.
7. Wenzel J, Scheler M, Bieber T, Tuting T. Evidence for a role of type I interferons in the pathogenesis of dermatomyositis. Br J Dermatol. 2005;153(2):462-3; author reply 3-4.
8. Wenzel J, Schmidt R, Proelss J, Zahn S, Bieber T, Tuting T. Type I interferon-associated skin recruitment of CXCR3+ lymphocytes in dermatomyositis. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2006;31(4):576-82.
9. Dourmishev LA, Wollina U. Dermatomyositis: immunopathologic study of skin lesions. Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Panonica Adriat. 2006;15(1):45-51.
10. Greenberg SA, Fiorentino D. Similar topology of injury to keratinocytes and myofibres in dermatomyositis skin and muscle. Br J Dermatol. 2009;160(2):464-5.
11. Gherardi RK. Pathogenic aspects of dermatomyositis, polymyositis and overlap myositis. Presse Med. 2011;40(4 Pt 2):e209-18.
12. Wenzel J, Tuting T. An IFN-associated cytotoxic cellular immune response against viral, self-, or tumor antigens is a common pathogenetic feature in "interface dermatitis". J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(10):2392-402.
13. Betteridge ZE, Gunawardena H, McHugh NJ. Pathogenic mechanisms of disease in myositis: autoantigens as clues. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2009;21(6):604-9.
14. Suber TL, Casciola-Rosen L, Rosen A. Mechanisms of disease: autoantigens as clues to the pathogenesis of myositis. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol. 2008;4(4):201-9.
15. Casciola-Rosen L, Mammen AL. Myositis autoantibodies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012;24(6):602-8.
16. Levine SM, Raben N, Xie D, Askin FB, Tuder R, Mullins M, et al. Novel conformation of histidyl-transfer RNA synthetase in the lung: the target tissue in Jo-1 autoantibody-associated myositis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(8):2729-39.
17. Zahn S, Barchet W, Rehkamper C, Hornung T, Bieber T, Tuting T, et al. Enhanced skin expression of melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) in dermatomyositis and related autoimmune diseases. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(5):988-9.
18. Eloranta ML, Barbasso Helmers S, Ulfgren AK, Ronnblom L, Alm GV, Lundberg IE. A possible mechanism for endogenous activation of the type I interferon system in myositis patients with anti-Jo-1 or anti-Ro 52/anti-Ro 60 autoantibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(9):3112-24.
19. Greenberg SA, Higgs BW, Morehouse C, Walsh RJ, Kong SW, Brohawn P, et al. Relationship between disease activity and type 1 interferon- and other cytokine-inducible gene expression in blood in dermatomyositis and polymyositis. Genes Immun. 2012;13(3):207-13.
20. Greenberg SA. Type 1 interferons and myositis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2010;12(Suppl 1):S4.
21. Greenberg SA, Pinkus JL, Pinkus GS, Burleson T, Sanoudou D, Tawil R, et al. Interferon-alpha/beta-mediated innate immune mechanisms in dermatomyositis. Ann Neurol. 2005;57(5):664-78.
22. Baechler EC, Bilgic H, Reed AM. Type I interferon pathway in adult and juvenile dermatomyositis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(6):249.
23. Niewold TB, Kariuki SN, Morgan GA, Shrestha S, Pachman LM. Elevated serum interferon-alpha activity in juvenile dermatomyositis: associations with disease activity at diagnosis and after thirty-six months of therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(6):1815-24.
24. De Paepe B, Creus KK, De Bleecker JL. Role of cytokines and chemokines in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2009;21(6):610-6.
25. Cherin P, Herson S, Crevon MC, Hauw JJ, Cervera P, Galanaud P, et al. Mechanisms of lysis by activated cytotoxic cells expressing perforin and granzyme-B genes and the protein TIA-1 in muscle biopsies of myositis. J Rheumatol. 1996;23(7):1135-42.
26. Grassi M, Capello F, Bertolino L, Seia Z, Pippione M. Identification of granzyme B-expressing CD-8-positive T cells in lymphocytic inflammatory infiltrate in cutaneous lupus erythematosus and in dermatomyositis. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34(8):910-4.
27. Khanna S, Reed AM. Immunopathogenesis of juvenile dermatomyositis. Muscle Nerve. 2010;41(5):581-92.
28. Greenberg SA, Amato AA. Uncertainties in the pathogenesis of adult dermatomyositis. Curr Opin Neurol. 2004;17(3):359-64.
29. Aouba A, Georgin-Lavialle S, Terrier B, Guillevin L, Authier FJ. Anti-PL7 antisynthetase syndrome under interferon therapy. Joint Bone Spine. 2011;78(1):94-7.
30. Somani AK, Swick AR, Cooper KD, McCormick TS. Severe dermatomyositis triggered by interferon beta-1a therapy and associated with enhanced type I interferon signaling. Arch Dermatol. 2008;144(10):1341-9.
31. Dietrich LL, Bridges AJ, Albertini MR. Dermatomyositis after interferon alpha treatment. Med Oncol. 2000;17(1):64-9.
32. Rayavarapu S, Coley W, Nagaraju K. An update on pathogenic mechanisms of inflammatory myopathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23(6):579-84.
33. Zong M, Lundberg IE. Pathogenesis, classification and treatment of inflammatory myopathies. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2011;7(5):297-306.
34. Gitiaux C, Kostallari E, Lafuste P, Authier FJ, Christov C, Gherardi RK. Whole microvascular unit deletions in dermatomyositis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013;72(3):445-52.
35. Salomonsson S, Grundtman C, Zhang SJ, Lanner JT, Li C, Katz A, et al. Upregulation of MHC class I in transgenic mice results in reduced force-generating capacity in slow-twitch muscle. Muscle Nerve. 2009;39(5):674-82.
36. van der Pas J, Hengstman GJ, ter Laak HJ, Borm GF, van Engelen BG. Diagnostic value of MHC class I staining in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75(1):136-9.
37. Henriques-Pons A, Nagaraju K. Nonimmune mechanisms of muscle damage in myositis: role of the endoplasmic reticulum stress response and autophagy in the disease pathogenesis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2009;21(6):581-7.
38. Rothwell S, Cooper RG, Lamb JA, Chinoy H. Entering a new phase of immunogenetics in the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2013;25(6):735-41.
39. Miller FW, Cooper RG, Vencovsky J, Rider LG, Danko K, Wedderburn LR, et al. Genome-wide association study of dermatomyositis reveals genetic overlap with other autoimmune disorders. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65(12):3239-47.
40. Gono T, Kawaguchi Y, Kuwana M, Sugiura T, Furuya T, Takagi K, et al. Brief report: Association of HLA-DRB1 0101/ 0405 with susceptibility to anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 antibody-positive dermatomyositis in the Japanese population. Arthritis Rheum. 2012;64(11):3736-40.
41. Sugiura T, Kawaguchi Y, Goto K, Hayashi Y, Tsuburaya R, Furuya T, et al. Positive association between STAT4 polymorphisms and polymyositis/ dermatomyositis in a Japanese population. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71(10):1646-50.
42. Niewold TB, Kariuki SN, Morgan GA, Shrestha S, Pachman LM. Gene-gene-sex interaction in cytokine gene polymorphisms revealed by serum interferon alpha phenotype in juvenile dermatomyositis. J Pediatr. 2010;157(4):653-7.
43. Jimenez-Morales S, Velazquez-Cruz R, Ramirez-Bello J, Bonilla-Gonzalez E, Romero-Hidalgo S, Escamilla-Guerrero G, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is a common genetic risk factor for asthma, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus in a Mexican pediatric population. Hum Immunol. 2009;70(4):251-6.
44. Parks CG, Pandey JP, Dooley MA, Treadwell EL, St Clair EW, Gilkeson GS, et al. Genetic polymorphisms in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and TNF-beta in a population-based study of systemic lupus erythematosus: associations and interaction with the interleukin-1alpha-889 C/T polymorphism. Hum Immunol. 2004;65(6):622-31.
45. Nabatian AS, Bashir MM, Wysocka M, Sharma M, Werth VP. Tumor necrosis factor alpha release in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of cutaneous lupus and dermatomyositis patients. Arthritis Res Ther. 2012;14(1):R1.
46. Zaba LC, Fiorentino DF. Skin disease in dermatomyositis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012;24(6):597-601.
47. Liao AP, Salajegheh M, Nazareno R, Kagan JC, Jubin RG, Greenberg SA. Interferon beta is associated with type 1 interferon-inducible gene expression in dermatomyositis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70(5):831-6.
48. Nasr R, Reed AM, Peterson EJ. Update: biomarkers for idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012;24(6):609-15.
49. Kim JS, Bashir MM, Werth VP. Gottron's papules exhibit dermal accumulation of CD44 variant 7 (CD44v7) and its binding partner osteopontin: a unique molecular signature. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132(7):1825-32.
50. Betteridge ZE, Gunawardena H, McHugh NJ. Novel autoantibodies and clinical phenotypes in adult and juvenile myositis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(2):209.
51. Gunawardena H, Betteridge ZE, McHugh NJ. Myositis-specific autoantibodies: their clinical and pathogenic significance in disease expression. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(6):607-12.
52. O'Connor KA, Abbott KA, Sabin B, Kuroda M, Pachman LM. MxA gene expression in juvenile dermatomyositis peripheral blood mononuclear cells: association with muscle involvement. Clin Immunol. 2006;120(3):319-25.
53. Bilgic H, Ytterberg SR, Amin S, McNallan KT, Wilson JC, Koeuth T, et al. Interleukin-6 and type I interferon-regulated genes and chemokines mark disease activity in dermatomyositis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(11):3436-46.
54. Drake LA, Dinehart SM, Farmer ER, Goltz RW, Graham GF, Hordinsky MK et al. Guidelines of care for dermatomyositis. American Academy of Dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;34 (5 Pt 1):824-9.
55. Hoogendijk JE, Bijlsma JW, van Engelen BG, Lindeman E, van Royen-Kerkhof A, de Rie MA, et al. The practice guideline 'Dermatomyositis, polymyositis and sporadic inclusion body myositis'. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2005;149(38):2104-11.
56. Miller FW. New approaches to the assessment and treatment of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71(Suppl 2):i82-5.
57. Klein RQ, Bangert CA, Costner M, Connolly MK, Tanikawa A, Okawa J, et al. Comparison of the reliability and validity of outcome instruments for cutaneous dermatomyositis. Br J Dermatol. 2008;159(4):887-94.
58. Femia AN, Vleugels RA, Callen JP. Cutaneous dermatomyositis: an updated review of treatment options and internal associations. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013;14(4):291-313.
59. Garcia-Doval I, Cruces M. Topical tacrolimus in cutaneous lesions of dermatomyositis: lack of effect in side-by-side comparison in five patients. Dermatology. 2004;209(3):247-8.
60. Hollar CB, Jorizzo JL. Topical tacrolimus 0.1 % ointment for refractory skin disease in dermatomyositis: a pilot study. J Dermatolog Treat. 2004;15(1):35-9.
61. Kim JE, Jeong MG, Lee HE, Ko JY, Ro YS. Successful treatment of cutaneous lesions of dermatomyositis with topical pimecrolimus. Ann Dermatol. 2011;23(3):348-51.
62. Ziprkowski L, Schewach-Millet M. Dermatomyositis. Report of a patient treated with hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil). Isr Med J. 1963;22:221-4.
63. Woo TY, Callen JP, Voorhees JJ, Bickers DR, Hanno R, Hawkins C. Cutaneous lesions of dermatomyositis are improved by hydroxychloroquine. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1984;10(4):592-600.
64. Olson NY, Lindsley CB. Adjunctive use of hydroxychloroquine in childhood dermatomyositis. J Rheumatol. 1989;16(12):1545-7.
65. Ang GC, Werth VP. Combination antimalarials in the treatment of cutaneous dermatomyositis: a retrospective study. Arch Dermatol. 2005;141(7):855-9.
66. Stein M, Bell MJ, Ang LC. Hydroxychloroquine neuromyotoxicity. J Rheumatol. 2000;27(12):2927-31.
67. Giannini M, Callen JP. Treatment of dermatomyositis with methotrexate and prednisone. Arch Dermatol. 1979;115(10):1251-2.
68. Zieglschmid-Adams ME, Pandya AG, Cohen SB, Sontheimer RD. Treatment of dermatomyositis with methotrexate. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;32(5 Pt 1):754-7.
69. Kasteler JS, Callen JP. Low-dose methotrexate administered weekly is an effective corticosteroid-sparing agent for the treatment of the cutaneous manifestations of dermatomyositis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;36(1):67-71.
70. Hornung T, Ko A, Tuting T, Bieber T, Wenzel J. Efficacy of low-dose methotrexate in the treatment of dermatomyositis skin lesions. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2012;37(2):139-42.
71. Wenzel J, Brahler S, Bauer R, Bieber T, Tuting T. Efficacy and safety of methotrexate in recalcitrant cutaneous lupus erythematosus: results of a retrospective study in 43 patients. Br J Dermatol. 2005;153(1):157-62.
72. Gelber AC, Nousari HC, Wigley FM. Mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of severe skin manifestations of dermatomyositis: a series of 4 cases. J Rheumatol. 2000;27(6):1542-5.
73. Edge JC, Outland JD, Dempsey JR, Callen JP. Mycophenolate mofetil as an effective corticosteroid-sparing therapy for recalcitrant dermatomyositis. Arch Dermatol. 2006;142(1):65-9.
74. Rouster-Stevens KA, Morgan GA, Wang D, Pachman LM. Mycophenolate mofetil: a possible therapeutic agent for children with juvenile dermatomyositis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2010;62(10):1446-51.
75. Tausche AK, Meurer M. Mycophenolate mofetil for dermatomyositis. Dermatology. 2001;202(4):341-3.
76. Sontheimer RD. The management of dermatomyositis: current treatment options. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2004;5(5):1083-99.
77. Sadayama T, Miyagawa S, Shirai T. Low-dose intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for intractable dermatomyositis skin lesions. J Dermatol. 1999;26(7):457-9.
78. Göttfried I, Seeber A, Anegg B, Rieger A, Stingl G, Volc-Platzer B. High dose intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) in dermatomyositis: clinical responses and effect on sIL-2R levels. Eur J Dermatol. 2000;10(1):29-35.
79. Saito E, Koike T, Hashimoto H, Miyasaka N, Ikeda Y, Hara M, et al. Efficacy of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in Japanese patients with steroid-resistant polymyositis and dermatomyositis. Mod Rheumatol. 2008;18(1):34-44.
80. Dalakas MC, Illa I, Dambrosia JM, Soueidan SA, Stein DP, Otero C, et al. A controlled trial of high-dose intravenous immune globulin infusions as treatment for dermatomyositis. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(27):1993-2000.
81. Femia AN, Eastham AB, Lam C, Merola JF, Qureshi AA, Vleugels RA. Intravenous immunoglobulin for refractory cutaneous dermatomyositis: a retrospective analysis from an academic medical center. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013;69(4):654-7.
82. Feldmeyer L, Benden C, Haile SR, Boehler A, Speich R, French LE, et al. Not all intravenous immunoglobulin preparations are equally well tolerated. Acta Derm Venereol. 2010;90(5):494-7.
83. Dalakas MC. Inflammatory myopathies: management of steroid resistance. Curr Opin Neurol. 2011;24(5):457-62.
84. Bunch TW, Worthington JW, Combs JJ, Ilstrup DM, Engel AG. Azathioprine with prednisone for polymyositis. A controlled, clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 1980;92(3):365-9.
85. van de Vlekkert J, Hoogendijk JE, de Haan RJ, Algra A, van der Tweel I, van der Pol WL, et al. Oral dexamethasone pulse therapy versus daily prednisolone in sub-acute onset myositis, a randomised clinical trial. Neuromuscul Disord. 2010;20(6):382-9.
86. Bascic-Kes V, Kes P, Zavoreo I, Lisak M, Zadro L, Coric L, et al. Guidelines for the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of neurologic diseases. Acta Clin Croat. 2012;51(4):673-83.
87. Lam CG, Manlhiot C, Pullenayegum EM, Feldman BM. Efficacy of intravenous Ig therapy in juvenile dermatomyositis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70(12):2089-94.
88. Elovaara I, Apostolski S, van Doorn P, Gilhus NE, Hietaharju A, Honkaniemi J, et al. EFNS guidelines for the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of neurological diseases: EFNS task force on the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of neurological diseases. Eur J Neurol. 2008;15(9):893-908.
89. Ochsendorf FR. Use of antimalarials in dermatology. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2010;8(10):829-44; quiz 45.
90. Kuznik A, Bencina M, Svajger U, Jeras M, Rozman B, Jerala R. Mechanism of endosomal TLR inhibition by antimalarial drugs and imidazoquinolines. J Immunol. 2011;186(8):4794-804.
91. Huber A, Gaffal E, Bieber T, Tuting T, Wenzel J. Treatment of recalcitrant dermatomyositis with efalizumab. Acta Derm Venereol. 2006;86(3):254-5.
92. Kerola AM, Kauppi MJ. Abatacept as a successful therapy for myositis-a case-based review. Clin Rheumatol. 2014.
93. Arabshahi B, Silverman RA, Jones OY, Rider LG. Abatacept and sodium thiosulfate for treatment of recalcitrant juvenile dermatomyositis complicated by ulceration and calcinosis. J Pediatr. 2012;160(3):520-2.
94. Musuruana JL, Cavallasca JA. Abatacept for treatment of refractory polymyositis. Joint Bone Spine. 2011;78(4):431-2.
95. Yao Y, Richman L, Higgs BW, Morehouse CA, de los Reyes M, Brohawn P, et al. Neutralization of interferon-alpha/beta-inducible genes and downstream effect in a phase I trial of an anti-interferon-alpha monoclonal antibody in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(6):1785-96.
96. Higgs BW, Zhu W, Morehouse C, White WI, Brohawn P, Guo X, et al. A phase 1b clinical trial evaluating sifalimumab, an anti-IFN-alpha monoclonal antibody, shows target neutralisation of a type I IFN signature in blood of dermatomyositis and polymyositis patients. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(1):256-62.
97. Fiorentino DF. The yin and yang of TNF-{alpha} inhibition. Arch Dermatol. 2007;143(2):233-6.
98. Liu Z, Davidson A. Taming lupus-a new understanding of pathogenesis is leading to clinical advances. Nat Med. 2012;18(6):871-82.
99. Pelle MT, Callen JP. Adverse cutaneous reactions to hydroxychloroquine are more common in patients with dermatomyositis than in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Arch Dermatol. 2002;138(9):1231-3 (discussion 3).
100. Click JW, Qureshi AA, Vleugels RA. Methotrexate for the treatment of cutaneous dermatomyositis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013;68(6):1043-5.
101. Cherin P, Herson S, Wechsler B, Piette JC, Bletry O, Coutellier A, et al. Efficacy of intravenous gammaglobulin therapy in chronic refractory polymyositis and dermatomyositis: an open study with 20 adult patients. Am J Med. 1991;91(2):162-8.
102. Dalakas MC, Hohlfeld R. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis. Lancet. 2003;362(9388):971-82.
103. Riley P, Maillard SM, Wedderburn LR, Woo P, Murray KJ, Pilkington CA. Intravenous cyclophosphamide pulse therapy in juvenile dermatomyositis: a review of efficacy and safety. Rheumatology (Oxford0. 2004;43(4):491-6.
104. Nagappa M, Taly AB, Sinha S, Gayathri N, Bindu PS, Mahadevan A, et al. Efficacy and limitations of pulse cyclophosphamide therapy in polymyositis and dermatomyositis. J Clin Neuromuscul Dis. 2013;14(4):161-8.
105. Schnabel A, Reuter M, Biederer J, Richter C, Gross WL. Interstitial lung disease in polymyositis and dermatomyositis: clinical course and response to treatment. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2003;32(5):273-84.
106. Yamasaki Y, Yamada H, Yamasaki M, Ohkubo M, Azuma K, Matsuoka S, et al. Intravenous cyclophosphamide therapy for progressive interstitial pneumonia in patients with polymyositis/dermatomyositis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2007;46(1):124-30.
107. Dinh HV, McCormack C, Hall S, Prince HM. Rituximab for the treatment of the skin manifestations of dermatomyositis: a report of 3 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;56(1):148-53.
108. Chung L, Genovese MC, Fiorentino DF. A pilot trial of rituximab in the treatment of patients with dermatomyositis. Arch Dermatol. 2007;143(6):763-7.
109. Carpenter JR, Bunch TW, Engel AG, O'Brien PC. Survival in polymyositis: corticosteroids and risk factors. J Rheumatol. 1977;4(2):207-14.
110. van de Vlekkert J, Hoogendijk JE, de Visser M. Long-term follow-up of 62 patients with myositis. J Neurol. 2014.
111. Bunch TW. Prednisone and azathioprine for polymyositis: long-term followup. Arthritis Rheum. 1981;24(1):45-8.
112. Joffe MM, Love LA, Leff RL, Fraser DD, Targoff IN, Hicks JE, et al. Drug therapy of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies: predictors of response to prednisone, azathioprine, and methotrexate and a comparison of their efficacy. Am J Med. 1993;94(4):379-87.
113. Vencovsky J, Jarosova K, Machacek S, Studynkova J, Kafkova J, Bartunkova J, et al. Cyclosporine A versus methotrexate in the treatment of polymyositis and dermatomyositis. Scand J Rheumatol. 2000;29(2):95-102.
114. Ramanan AV, Campbell-Webster N, Ota S, Parker S, Tran D, Tyrrell PN, et al. The effectiveness of treating juvenile dermatomyositis with methotrexate and aggressively tapered corticosteroids. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(11):3570-8.
115. Schiopu E, Phillips K, MacDonald PM, Crofford LJ, Somers EC. Predictors of survival in a cohort of patients with polymyositis and dermatomyositis: effect of corticosteroids, methotrexate and azathioprine. Arthritis Res Ther. 2012;14(1):R22.
116. Mii S, Niiyama S, Kusunoki M, Arai S, Katsuoka K. Cyclosporine A as treatment of esophageal involvement in dermatomyositis. Rheumatol Int. 2006;27(2):183-5.
117. Caramaschi P, Volpe A, Carletto A, Bambara LM, Biasi D. Long-standing refractory polymyositis responding to mycophenolate mofetil: a case report and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol. 2007;26(10):1795-6.
118. Levine TD. Rituximab in the treatment of dermatomyositis: an open-label pilot study. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(2):601-7.
119. Matsubara S, Kondo K, Sugaya K, Miyamoto K. Effects of tacrolimus on dermatomyositis and polymyositis: a prospective, open, non-randomized study of nine patients and a review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol. 2012;31(10):1493-8.
120. Ochi S, Nanki T, Takada K, Suzuki F, Komano Y, Kubota T, et al. Favorable outcomes with tacrolimus in two patients with refractory interstitial lung disease associated with polymyositis/dermatomyositis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2005;23(5):707-10.