Optical extinction of highly porous aerosol following atmospheric freeze drying

Journal of Geophysical Research

Volumn 119, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 6768-6787

  Adler, Gabriela ^a   Haspel, Carynelisa ^b   Moise, Tamar ^a   Rudich, Yinon ^a  

^a WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE   (Israel)

^b HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; CLOUDS; GLASS; ICE; POROUS MATERIALS; REFRACTIVE INDEX;

ATMOSPHERIC FREEZE DRYING; DISCRETE DIPOLE APPROXIMATION; EFFECTIVE MEDIUM APPROXIMATION; EFFECTIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX; MIE SCATTERING THEORY; OPTICAL EXTINCTION; OPTICAL MODELS; SINGLE-SCATTERING ALBEDO;

LIGHT EXTINCTION;

AEROSOL; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; FREEZE DRYING; LIGHT SCATTERING; MIE THEORY; OPTICAL PROPERTY; POROSITY; POROUS MEDIUM; REFRACTIVE INDEX; WAVELENGTH;

EID: 84903280971     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: 21562202     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2013JD021314     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Adachi, K., S. H. Chung, and P. R. Buseck (2010), Shapes of soot aerosol particles and implications for their effects on climate, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D15206, doi:10.1029/2009JD012868.
2. Adler, G., T. Koop, C. Haspel, I. Taraniuk, T. Moise, I. Koren, R. H. Heiblum, and Y. Rudich (2013), Formation of highly porous aerosol particles by atmospheric freeze-drying in ice clouds, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., doi:10.1073/pnas.1317209110.
3. Bahadur, R., P. S. Praveen, Y. Y. Xu, and V. Ramanathan (2012), Solar absorption by elemental and brown carbon determined from spectral observations, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 109(43), 17,366–17,371, doi:10.1073/pnas.1205910109.
4. Barresi, A., S. Ghio, D. Fissore, and R. Pisano (2009), Freeze drying of pharmaceutical excipients close to collapse temperature: Influence of the process conditions on process time and product quality, Drying Technol., 27(6), 805–816, doi:10.1080/07373930902901646.
5. Baumchen, O., J. D. McGraw, J. A. Forrest, and K. Dalnoki-Veress (2012), Reduced glass transition temperatures in thin polymer films: Surface effect or artifact?, Phys. Rev. Lett., 109(5), doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.055701.
6. Beaucage, G., R. Composto, and R. S. Stein (1993), Ellipsometric study of the glass-transition and thermal-expansion coefficients of thin polymer-films, J. Polym. Sci. B Polym. Phys., 31(3), 319–326, doi:10.1002/polb.1993.090310310.
7. Berry, M. V., and I. C. Percival (1986), Optics of fractal clusters such as smoke, Opt. Acta, 33(5), 577–591.
8. Bohren, C. F., and D. R. Huffman (1983), Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles, Wiley, New York.
9. Bonczyk, P. A., and R. J. Hall (1991), Fractal properties of soot agglomerates, Langmuir, 7(6), 1274–1280, doi:10.1021/la00054a042.
10. Bond, T. C., G. Habib, and R. W. Bergstrom (2006), Limitations in the enhancement of visible light absorption due to mixing state, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D20211, doi:10.1029/2006JD007315.
11. Bond, T. C., et al. (2013), Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 5380–5552, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50171.
12. Bruggerman, D. A. G. (1935), Berechnung verschiedener physikalischer Konstanten von heterogenen Substanzen. I. Dielektrizitätskonstanten und Leitfähigkeiten der Mischkörper aus isotropen Substanzen, Ann. Phys., 416(7), 636–664.
13. Cappa, C. D., et al. (2012), Radiative absorption enhancements due to the mixing state of atmospheric black carbon, Science, 337(6098), 1078–1081, doi:10.1126/science.1223447.
14. Chamaillard, K., C. Kleefeld, S. G. Jennings, D. Ceburnis, and C. D. O’Dowd (2006), Light scattering properties of sea-salt aerosol particles inferred from modeling studies and ground-based measurements, J. Quant. Spectros. Radiat. Transfer, 101(3), 498–511, doi:10.1016/j. jqsrt.2006.02.062.
15. Chýlek, P., and V. Srivastava (1983), Dielectric-constant of a composite inhomogeneous-medium, Phys. Rev. B, 27(8), 5098–5106, doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.27.5098.
16. Chýlek, P., V. Ramaswamy, and R. J. Cheng (1984), Effect of graphitic carbon on the albedo of clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 41(21), 3076–3084.
17. Chýlek, P., G. Videen, D. J. W. Geldart, J. S. Dobbie, and H. C. W. Tso (2000), Effective medium approximations for heterogeneous particles, in Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles, Theory, Measurements, and Applications, edited by J. W. H. M. I. Mishchenko and L. D. Travis, pp. 273–308, Academic Press, New York.
18. Cziczo, D. J., D. M. Murphy, P. K. Hudson, and D. S. Thomson (2004), Single particle measurements of the chemical composition of cirrus ice residue during CRYSTAL-FACE, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04201, doi:10.1029/2003JD004032.
19. DeCarlo, P. F., J. G. Slowik, D. R. Worsnop, P. Davidovits, and J. L. Jimenez (2004), Particle morphology and density characterization by combined mobility and aerodynamic diameter measurements. Part 1: Theory, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38(12), 1185–1205, doi:10.1080/027868290903907.
20. DeMott, P. J., D. J. Cziczo, A. J. Prenni, D. M. Murphy, S. M. Kreidenweis, D. S. Thomson, R. Borys, and D. C. Rogers (2003), Measurements of the concentration and composition of nuclei for cirrus formation, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 100(25), 14,655–14,660, doi:10.1073/pnas.2532677100.
21. Dinar, E., I. Taraniuk, E. R. Graber, S. Katsman, T. Moise, T. Anttila, T. F. Mentel, and Y. Rudich (2006), Cloud condensation nuclei properties of model and atmospheric HULIS, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2465–2481.
22. Dinar, E., A. A. Riziq, C. Spindler, C. Erlick, G. Kiss, and Y. Rudich (2008), The complex refractive index of atmospheric and model humic-like substances (HULIS) retrieved by a cavity ring down aerosol spectrometer (CRD-AS), Faraday Discuss., 137, 279–295, doi:10.1039/b703111d.
23. Donner, L. J., et al. (2011), The dynamical core, physical parameterizations, and basic simulation characteristics of the atmospheric component AM3 of the GFDL global coupled model CM3, J. Clim., 24(13), 3484–3519, doi:10.1175/2011jcli3955.1.
24. Draine, B. T., and P. J. Flatau (1994), Discrete-dipole approximation for scattering calculations, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 11(4), 1491–1499, doi:10.1364/josaa.11.001491.
25. Draine, B. T., and P. J. Flatau (2010), User guide for the discrete dipole approximation code DDSCAT 7.1. [Available at http://arxiv.org/abs/1002.1505.]
26. Erlick, C. (2006), Effective refractive indices of water and sulfate drops containing absorbing inclusions, J. Atmos. Sci., 63(2), 754–763, doi:10.1175/jas3635.1.
27. Facchini, M. C., et al. (1999), Partitioning of the organic aerosol component between fog droplets and interstitial air, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D21), 26,821–26,832, doi:10.1029/1999JD900349.
28. Felske, J. D., T. T. Charalampopoulos, and H. S. Hura (1984), Determination of the refractive-indexes of soot particles from the reflectivities of compressed soot pellets, Combust. Sci. Technol., 37(5–6), 263–283, doi:10.1080/00102208408923757.
29. Freedman, M. A., C. A. Hasenkopf, M. R. Beaver, and M. A. Tolbert (2009), Optical properties of internally mixed aerosol particles composed of dicarboxylic acids and ammonium sulfate, J. Phys. Chem. A, 113(48), 13,584–13,592, doi:10.1021/JP906240y.
30. Freedman, M. A., K. J. Baustian, M. E. Wise, and M. A. Tolbert (2010), Characterizing the morphology of organic aerosols at ambient temperature and pressure, Anal. Chem., 82(19), 7965–7972, doi:10.1021/ac101437w.
31. Freney, E. J., K. Adachi, and P. R. Buseck (2010), Internally mixed atmospheric aerosol particles: Hygroscopic growth and light scattering, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D19210, doi:10.1029/2009JD013558.
32. Froyd, K. D., D. M. Murphy, P. Lawson, D. Baumgardner, and R. L. Herman (2010), Aerosols that form subvisible cirrus at the tropical tropopause, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(1), 209–218, doi:10.5194/acp-10-209-2010.
33. Froyd, K. D., D. M. Murphy, T. J. Sanford, D. S. Thomson, J. C. Wilson, L. Pfister, and L. Lait (2009), Aerosol composition of the tropical upper troposphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9(13), 4363–4385, doi:10.5194/acp-9-4363-2009.
34. Fu, Q., and W. B. Sun (2006), Apparent optical properties of spherical particles in absorbing medium, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 100(1–3), 137–142, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2005.11.031.
35. Garnett, J. C. M. (1904), Colours in metal glasses and in metallic films, Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A, 203(359–371), 385–420, doi:10.1098/rsta.1904.0024.
36. Gelencser, A., A. Hoffer, G. Kiss, E. Tombacz, R. Kurdi, and L. Bencze (2003), In-situ formation of light-absorbing organic matter in cloud water, J. Atmos. Chem., 45(1), 25–33, doi:10.1023/a:1024060428172.
37. Ghan, S. J., X. Liu, R. C. Easter, R. Zaveri, P. J. Rasch, J. H. Yoon, and B. Eaton (2012), Toward a minimal representation of aerosols in climate models: Comparative decomposition of aerosol direct, semidirect, and indirect radiative forcing, J. Clim., 25(19), 6461–6476, doi:10.1175/jcli-d-11-00650.1.
38. Graber, E. R., and Y. Rudich (2006), Atmospheric HULIS: How humic-like are they? A comprehensive and critical review, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6(3), 729–753, doi:10.5194/acp-6-729-2006.
39. Hansell, R. A., J. S. Reid, S. C. Tsay, T. L. Roush, and O. V. Kalashnikova (2011), A sensitivity study on the effects of particle chemistry, asphericity and size on the mass extinction efficiency of mineral dust in the earth’s atmosphere: From the near to thermal IR, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11(4), 1527–1547, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1527-2011.
40. Haywood, J. M., D. L. Roberts, A. Slingo, J. M. Edwards, and K. P. Shine (1997), General circulation model calculations of the direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic sulfate and fossil-fuel soot aerosol, J. Clim., 10(7), 1562–1577, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<1562: GCMCOT>2.0.CO;2.
41. Heald, C. L., et al. (2011), Exploring the vertical profile of atmospheric organic aerosol: Comparing 17 aircraft field campaigns with a global model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11(24), 12,673–12,696, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12673-2011.
42. Heymsfield, A. J., and L. M. Miloshevich (1995), Relative humidity and temperature influences on cirrus formation and evolution: Observations from wave clouds and FIRE II, J. Atmos. Sci., 52(23), 4302–4326.
43. Hoffer, A., A. Gelencser, P. Guyon, G. Kiss, O. Schmid, G. P. Frank, P. Artaxo, and M. O. Andreae (2006), Optical properties of humic-like substances (HULIS) in biomass-burning aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3563–3570.
44. Hoyle, C. R., B. P. Luo, and T. Peter (2005), The origin of high ice crystal number densities in cirrus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 62(7), 2568–2579, doi:10.1175/jas3487.1.
45. Jacobson, M. Z. (2001), Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols, Nature, 409(6821), 695–697, doi:10.1038/35055518.
46. Jensen, E. J., et al. (1998), Ice nucleation processes in upper tropospheric wave-clouds observed during SUCCESS, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25(9), 1363–1366, doi:10.1029/98GL00299.
47. Jensen, E. J., L. Pfister, T. P. Bui, P. Lawson, and D. Baumgardner (2010), Ice nucleation and cloud microphysical properties in tropical tropopause layer cirrus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(3), 1369–1384, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1369-2010.
48. Jensen, E. J., L. Pfister, and O. B. Toon (2011), Impact of radiative heating, wind shear, temperature variability, and microphysical processes on the structure and evolution of thin cirrus in the tropical tropopause layer, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D12209, doi:10.1029/2010JD015417.
49. Jensen, E. J., L. Pfister, and T. P. Bui (2012), Physical processes controlling ice concentrations in cold cirrus near the tropical tropopause, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D11205, doi:10.1029/2011JD017319.
50. Jensen, E. J., G. Diskin, R. P. Lawson, S. Lance, T. P. Bui, D. Hlavka, M. McGill, L. Pfister, O. B. Toon, and R. S. Gao (2013), Ice nucleation and dehydration in the Tropical Tropopause Layer, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 110(6), 2041–2046, doi:10.1073/pnas.1217104110.
51. Jost, H. J., et al. (2004), In-situ observations of mid-latitude forest fire plumes deep in the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L11101, doi:10.1029/2003GL019253.
52. Kahnert, M. (2010), Modelling the optical and radiative properties of freshly emitted light absorbing carbon within an atmospheric chemical transport model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(3), 1403–1416.
53. Kahnert, M., T. Nousiainen, and P. Mauno (2011), On the impact of non-sphericity and small-scale surface roughness on the optical properties of hematite aerosols, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 112(11), 1815–1824, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2011.01.022.
54. Kahnert, M., T. Nousiainen, H. Lindqvist, and M. Ebert (2012a), Optical properties of light absorbing carbon aggregates mixed with sulfate: assessment of different model geometries for climate forcing calculations, Opt. Express, 20(9).
55. Kahnert, M., T. Nousiainen, M. A. Thomas, and J. Tyynelä (2012b), Light scattering by particles with small-scale surface roughness: Comparison of four classes of model geometries, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 113(18), 2356–2367.
56. Karcher, B. (2012), Supersaturation fluctuations in cirrus clouds driven by colored noise, J. Atmos. Sci., 69(2), 435–443, doi:10.1175/jas-d-11-0151.1.
57. Karcher, B., and J. Strom (2003), The roles of dynamical variability and aerosols in cirrus cloud formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 823–838.
58. Karkkainen, K., A. Sihvola, and K. Nikoskinen (2001), Analysis of a three-dimensional dielectric mixture with finite difference method, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 39(5), 1013–1018, doi:10.1109/36.921419.
59. Keddie, J. L., R. A. L. Jones, and R. A. Cory (1994), Size-dependent depression of the glass-transition temperature in polymer-films, Europhys. Lett., 27(1), 59–64, doi:10.1209/0295-5075/27/1/011.
60. Kiss, G., E. Tombácz, and H.-C. Hansson (2005), Surface tension effects of humic-like substances in the aqueous extract of tropospheric fine aerosol, J. Atmos. Chem., 50(3), 279–294, doi:10.1007/s10874-005-5079-5.
61. Knopf, D. A., and Y. J. Rigg (2011), Homogeneous ice nucleation from aqueous inorganic/organic particles representative of biomass burning: Water activity, freezing temperatures, nucleation rates, J. Phys. Chem. A, 115(5), 762–773, doi:10.1021/JP109171g.
62. Kocifaj, M., and G. Videen (2008), Optical behavior of composite carbonaceous aerosols: DDA and EMT approaches, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 109(8), 1404–1416, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2007.11.007.
63. Kocifaj, M., M. Gangl, F. Kundracík, H. Horvath, and G. Videen (2006), Simulation of the optical properties of single composite aerosols, J. Aerosol Sci., 37(12), 1683–1695, doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2006.08.002.
64. Kolokolova, L., and B. A. S. Gustafson (2001), Scattering by inhomogeneous particles: Microwave analog experiments and comparison to effective medium theories, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 70(4–6), 611–625, doi:10.1016/s0022-4073(01)00033-4.
65. Koren, I., Y. J. Kaufman, L. A. Remer, and J. V. Martins (2004), Measurement of the effect of Amazon smoke on inhibition of cloud formation, Science, 303(5662), 1342–1345, doi:10.1126/science.1089424.
66. Krieger, U. K., C. Marcolli, and J. P. Reid (2012), Exploring the complexity of aerosol particle properties and processes using single particle techniques, Chem Soc Rev, 41(19), 6631–6662, doi:10.1039/c2cs35082c.
67. Kuang, Z. M., and C. S. Bretherton (2004), Convective influence on the heat balance of the tropical tropopause layer: A cloud-resolving model study, J. Atmos. Sci., 61(23), 2919–2927, doi:10.1175/jas-3306.1.
68. Lack, D. A., and C. D. Cappa (2010), Impact of brown and clear carbon on light absorption enhancement, single scatter albedo and absorption wavelength dependence of black carbon, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(9), 4207–4220, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010.
69. Lambe, A. T., et al. (2011), Characterization of aerosol photooxidation flow reactors: Heterogeneous oxidation, secondary organic aerosol formation and cloud condensation nuclei activity measurements, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4(3), 445–461, doi:10.5194/amt-4-445-2011.
70. Lang-Yona, N., A. Abo-Riziq, C. Erlick, E. Segre, M. Trainic, and Y. Rudich (2010), Interaction of internally mixed aerosols with light, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 12(1), 21–31.
71. Lee, S. Y., W. Widiyastuti, N. Tajima, F. Iskandar, and K. Okuyama (2009), Measurement of the effective density of both spherical aggregated and ordered porous aerosol particles using mobility- and mass-analyzers, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 43(2), 136–144, doi:10.1080/02786820802530524.
72. Lesins, G., P. Chýlek, and U. Lohmann (2002), A study of internal and external mixing scenarios and its effect on aerosol optical properties and direct radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D10, 4094), doi:10.1029/2001JD000973.
73. Lin, P., X.-F. Huang, L.-Y. He, and J. Zhen Yu (2010), Abundance and size distribution of HULIS in ambient aerosols at a rural site in South China, J. Aerosol Sci., 41(1), 74–87, doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2009.09.001.
74. Lindqvist, H., T. Nousiainen, E. Zubko, and O. Muñoz (2011), Optical modeling of vesicular volcanic ash particles, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 112(11), 1871–1880.
75. Liu, X. H., J. E. Penner, B. Y. Das, D. Bergmann, J. M. Rodriguez, S. Strahan, M. H. Wang, and Y. Feng (2007), Uncertainties in global aerosol simulations: Assessment using three meteorological data sets, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11212, doi:10.1029/2006JD008216.
76. Ma, L. L., and J. E. Thompson (2012), Optical properties of dispersed aerosols in the near ultraviolet (355 nm): Measurement approach and initial data, Anal. Chem., 84(13), 5611–5617, doi:10.1021/ac3005814.
77. McComiskey, A., S. E. Schwartz, B. Schmid, H. Guan, E. R. Lewis, P. Ricchiazzi, and J. A. Ogren (2008), Direct aerosol forcing: Calculation from observables and sensitivities to inputs, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D09202, doi:10.1029/2007JD009170.
78. Mishchenko, M. I., L. D. Travis, and D. W. Mackowski (2010), T-matrix method and its applications to electromagnetic scattering by particles: A current perspective, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 111(11), 1700–1703, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2010.01.030.
79. Mishra, S. K., S. Dey, and S. N. Tripathi (2008), Implications of particle composition and shape to dust radiative effect: A case study from the Great Indian Desert, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L23814, doi:10.1029/2008GL036058.
80. Moreno, F., R. Vilaplana, O. Munoz, A. Molina, and D. Guirado (2006), The scattering matrix for size distributions of irregular particles: An application to an olivine sample, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 100(1–3), 277–287, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2005.11.069.
81. Moroz, A. (2005), A recursive transfer-matrix solution for a dipole radiating inside and outside a stratified sphere, Ann. Phys., 315(2), 352–418, doi:10.1016/j.aop.2004.07.002.
82. Murphy, D. M., D. S. Thomson, A. M. Middlebrook, and M. E. Schein (1998), In situ single-particle characterization at Cape Grim, J. Geophys. Res., 103(D13), 16,485–16,491, doi:10.1029/97JD03281.
83. Nguyen, H. N., et al. (2008), Chemical composition and morphology of individual aerosol particles from a CARIBIC flight at 10 km altitude between 50 degrees N and 30 degrees S, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D23209, doi:10.1029/2008JD009956.
84. Nousiainen, T., E. Zubko, H. Lindqvist, M. Kahnert, and J. Tyynelä (2012), Comparison of scattering by different nonspherical, wavelength-scale particles, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 113(18), 2391–2405.
85. Nousiainen, T., E. Zubko, J. V. Niemi, K. Kupiainen, M. Lehtinen, K. Muinonen, and G. Videen (2009), Single-scattering modeling of thin, birefringent mineral-dust flakes using the discrete-dipole approximation, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D07207, doi:10.1029/2008JD011564.
86. Protat, A., J. Delanoe, P. T. May, J. Haynes, C. Jakob, E. O’Connor, M. Pope, and M. C. Wheeler (2011), The variability of tropical ice cloud properties as a function of the large-scale context from ground-based radar-lidar observations over Darwin, Australia, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11(16), 8363–8384, doi:10.5194/acp-11-8363-2011.
87. Purcell, E. M., and C. R. Pennypacker (1973), Scattering and absorption of light by nonspherical dielectric grains, Astrophys. J., 186(2), 705–714, doi:10.1086/152538.
88. Qian, L., and H. F. Zhang (2011), Controlled freezing and freeze drying: A versatile route for porous and micro-/nano-structured materials, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 86(2), 172–184, doi:10.1002/jctb.2495.
89. Ramachandran, S., R. Srivastava, S. Kedia, and T. A. Rajesh (2012), Contribution of natural and anthropogenic aerosols to optical properties and radiative effects over an urban location, Environ. Res. Lett., 7(3), doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034028.
90. Riziq, A. A., C. Erlick, E. Dinar, and Y. Rudich (2007), Optical properties of absorbing and non-absorbing aerosols retrieved by cavity ring down (CRD) spectroscopy, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7(6), 1523–1536.
91. Riziq, A. A., M. Trainic, C. Erlick, E. Segre, and Y. Rudich (2008), Extinction efficiencies of coated absorbing aerosols measured by cavity ring down aerosol spectrometry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(6), 1823–1833.
92. Robinson, D. A., and S. P. Friedman (2001), Effect of particle size distribution on the effective dielectric permittivity of saturated granular media, Water Resour. Res., 37(1), 33–40, doi:10.1029/2000WR900227.
93. Roos, Y. H. (2010), Glass transition temperature and its relevance in food processing, Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol., 1, 469–496, doi:10.1146/annurev.food.102308.124139.
94. Rosenfeld, D., S. Sherwood, R. Wood, and L. Donner (2014), Climate effects of aerosol-cloud interactions, Science, 343(6169), 379–380, doi:10.1126/science.1247490.
95. Scarnato, B. V., S. Vahidinia, D. T. Richard, and T. W. Kirchstetter (2013), Effects of internal mixing and aggregate morphology on optical properties of black carbon using a discrete dipole approximation model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13(10), 5089–5101, doi:10.5194/acp-13-5089-2013.
96. Sen, P. N., C. Scala, and M. H. Cohen (1981), A self-similar model for sedimentary-rocks with application to the dielectric-constant of fused glass-beads, Geophysics, 46(5), 781–795, doi:10.1190/1.1441215.
97. Sharma, S. K., and D. J. Somerford (2006), Light Scattering by Optically Soft Particles, Springer/Praxis Publishing Ltd., Berlin.
98. Shen, Y., B. T. Draine, and E. T. Johnson (2008), Modeling porous dust grains with ballistic aggregates. I. Geometry and optical properties, Astrophys. J., 689(1), 260–275, doi:10.1086/592765.
99. Shen, Y., B. T. Draine, and E. T. Johnson (2009), Modeling porous dust grains with ballistic aggregates. Ii. Light scattering properties, Astrophys. J., 696(2), 2126–2137, doi:10.1088/0004-637x/696/2/2126.
100. Sihvola, A., and R. Sharma (1999), Scattering corrections for Maxwell Garnett mixing rule, Microwave Opt. Technol. Lett., 22(4), 229–231.
101. Sorensen, C. M. (2001), Light scattering by fractal aggregates: A review, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 35(2), 648–687, doi:10.1080/02786820117868.
102. Stier, P., J. H. Seinfeld, S. Kinne, and O. Boucher (2007), Aerosol absorption and radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7(19), 5237–5261.
103. Stroud, D., and F. P. Pan (1978), Self-consistent approach to electromagnetic-wave propagation in composite media—Application to model granular metals, Phys. Rev. B, 17(4), 1602–1610, doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.17.1602.
104. Sun, H. L., L. Biedermann, and T. C. Bond (2007), Color of brown carbon: A model for ultraviolet and visible light absorption by organic carbon aerosol, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L17813, doi:10.1029/2007GL029797.
105. Taraniuk, I., E. R. Graber, A. Kostinski, and Y. Rudich (2007), Surfactant properties of atmospheric and model humic-like substances (HULIS), Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L16807, doi:10.1029/2007GL029576.
106. Toon, O. B., and T. P. Ackerman (1981), Algorithms for the calculation of scattering by stratified spheres, Appl. Opt., 20(20), 3657–3660, doi:10.1364/ao.20.003657.
107. Tsang, L., J. A. Kong, and R. Shin (1985), Theory of Microwave Remote Sensing, Wiley-Interscience, New York.
108. Vaidya, D. B., and R. Gupta (2011), Infrared emission from the composite grains: Effects of inclusions and porosities on the 10 and 18 μm features, Astron. Astrophys., 528, A57, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014899.
109. Veghte, D. P., and M. A. Freedman (2012), The necessity of microscopy to characterize the optical properties of size-selected, nonspherical aerosol particles, Anal. Chem., 84(21), 9101–9108, doi:10.1021/ac3017373.
110. Vilaplana, R., F. Moreno, and A. Molina (2006), Study of the sensitivity of size-averaged scattering matrix elements of nonspherical particles to changes in shape, porosity and refractive index, J. Quant. Spectrosc. RA., 100(1–3), 415–428, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2005.11.068.
111. Voshchinnikov, N. V., and J. S. Mathis (1999), Calculating cross sections of composite interstellar grains, Astrophys. J., 526(1), 257–264, doi:10.1086/307997.
112. Voshchinnikov, N. V., V. B. Il’in, and T. Henning (2005), Modelling the optical properties of composite and porous interstellar grains, Astron. Astrophys., 429(2), 371–381, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400081.
113. Voshchinnikov, N. V., G. Videen, and T. Henning (2007), Effective medium theories for irregular fluffy structures: Aggregation of small particles, Appl. Opt., 46(19), 4065–4072, doi:10.1364/ao.46.004065.
114. Wolff, M. J., G. C. Clayton, and S. J. Gibson (1998), Modeling composite and fluffy grains. II. Porosity and phase functions, Astrophys. J., 503(2), 815–830, doi:10.1086/306029.
115. Worringen, A., M. Ebert, T. Trautmann, S. Weinbruch, and G. Helas (2008), Optical properties of internally mixed ammonium sulfate and soot particles-a study of individual aerosol particles and ambient aerosol populations, Appl. Opt., 47(21), 3835–3845, doi:10.1364/ao.47.003835.
116. You, Y., et al. (2012), Images reveal that atmospheric particles can undergo liquid–liquid phase separations, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 109(33), 13,188–13,193, doi:10.1073/pnas.1206414109.
117. Yurkin, M. A., and A. G. Hoekstra (2007), The discrete dipole approximation: An overview and recent developments, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 106(1–3), 558–589, doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2007.01.034.
118. Zamora, I. R., A. Tabazadeh, D. M. Golden, and M. Z. Jacobson (2011), Hygroscopic growth of common organic aerosol solutes, including humic substances, as derived from water activity measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D23207, doi:10.1029/2011JD016067.
119. Ziese, M., H. Wex, E. Nilsson, I. Salma, R. Ocskay, T. Hennig, A. Massling, and F. Stratmann (2008), Hygroscopic growth and activation of HULIS particles: Experimental data and a new iterative parameterization scheme for complex aerosol particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8(6), 1855–1866.