Electroconvulsive therapy: A selected review

American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 268-281

  Greenberg, Robert M ^a   Kellner, Charles H ^b  

^a St Mary Hospital   (United States)

^b RUTGERS NEW JERSEY MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; DIAZEPAM; LITHIUM; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; NORTRIPTYLINE; PHENELZINE; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SUXAMETHONIUM; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; VENLAFAXINE;

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA; BIPOLAR DISORDER; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEPRESSION; DRUG EFFICACY; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ELECTRODE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; ELECTROSTIMULATION; GERIATRIC PATIENT; GERONTOPSYCHIATRY; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MENTAL DISEASE; MINI MENTAL STATE EXAMINATION; MOOD DISORDER; PATIENT MONITORING; PREDICTION; PSYCHOPHARMACOTHERAPY; RETROGRADE AMNESIA; REVIEW; SEIZURE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84903188147     PISSN: 10647481     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00019442-200504000-00002     Document Type: Review

References (213)

1. Abrams R: Electroconvulsive Therapy, 4th Edition. New York, Oxford University Press, 2002
2. Krueger RB, Sackeim HA: Electroconvulsive therapy and schizophrenia, in Schizophrenia. Edited by Hirsch SR, Weinberger D. Oxford, UK, Blackwell, 1995, pp 503-545
3. American Psychiatric Association: The Practice of ECT: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 2001
4. Mukherjee S, Sackeim HA, Schnur DB: Electroconvulsive therapy of acute manic episodes: a review of 50 years' experience. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:169-176
5. Sackeim HA, Rush AJ: Melancholia and response to ECT (letter). Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152:1242-1243
6. Freeman C, Basson J, Crighton A: Double-blind, controlled trail of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and simulated ECT in depressive illness. Lancet 1978; 1:738-1740
7. Lambourn J, Gill D: A controlled comparison of simulated and real ECT. Br J Psychiatry 1978; 133:514-519
8. Johnstone EC, Deakin JFW, Lawler P, et al: The Northwick Park electroconvulsive therapy trial. Lancet 1980; ii:1317-1320
9. West E: Electric convulsion therapy in depression: a double-blind controlled trial. BMJ (Clin Res) 1981; 282:355-357
10. Brandon S, Cowley P, McDonald C, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy: results in depressive illness from the Leicestershire trial. BMJ (Clin Res) 1984; 288:22-25
11. Gregory S, Shawcross C, Gill D: The Nottingham ECT Study: a double-blind comparison of bilateral, unilateral, and simulated ECT in depressive illness. Br J Psychiatry 1985; 146:520-524
12. Grunhaus L, Schreiber S, Dolberg OT, et al: A randomized, controlled comparison of electroconvulsive therapy and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in severe and resistant nonpsychotic major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53:324-331
13. Fricchione GL, Kaufman LD, Gruber BL, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy and cyclophosphamide in combination for severe neuropsychiatric lupus with catatonia. Am J Med 1990; 88:442-443
14. Rummans TA, Bassingthwaighte ME: Severe medical and neurologic complications associated with near-lethal catatonia treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1991; 7:121-124
15. Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, et al: Catatonia, II: treatment with lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996; 93:137-143
16. Abrams R: Electroconvulsive therapy in the medically compromised patient. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1991; 14:871-885
17. Weiner R, Coffey CE, Krystal A: Electroconvulsive therapy in the medical and neurologic patient, in Psychiatric Care of the Medical Patient, 2nd Edition. Edited by Stoudemire A, Fogel B, Greenberg D. New York, Oxford University Press, 2000, pp 419-428
18. Applegate RJ: Diagnosis and management of ischemic heart disease in the patient scheduled to undergo electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1997; 13:128-144
19. Dolinski SY, Zvara DA: Anesthetic considerations of cardiovascular risk during electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1997; 13:157-164
20. Rayburn BK: Electroconvulsive therapy in patients with heart failure or valvular heart disease. Convuls Ther 1997; 13:145-156
21. Folkerts H: [Electroconvulsive therapy in neurologic diseases]. Nervenarzt 1995; 66:241-251
22. Krystal AD, Coffey CE: Neuropsychiatric considerations in the use of electroconvulsive therapy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 9:283-292
23. Zwil AS, Pelchat RJ: ECT in the treatment of patients with neurological and somatic disease. Int J Psychiatry Med 1994; 24:1-29
24. Kellner C, Bernstein H: ECT as a treatment for neurologic illness, in The Clinical Science of Electroconvulsive Therapy. Edited by Coffey C. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp 183-210
25. Faber R, Trimble MR: Electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders. Mov Disord 1991; 6:293-303
26. Rasmussen K, Abrams R: Treatment of Parkinson's disease with electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1991; 14:925-933
27. Kellner CH, Beale MD, Pritchett JT, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy and Parkinson's disease: the case for further study. Psychopharmacol Bull 1994; 30:495-500
28. Jeanneau A: Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of Parkinson disease. Encephale 1993; 19:573-578
29. Pridmore S, Pollard C: Electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson's disease: 30-month follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60:693
30. Andersen K, Balldin J, Gottfries C, et al: A double-blind evaluation of electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson's disease with "on-off" phenomena. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 76:191-199
31. Prudic J, Sackeim HA, Devanand DP: Medication resistance and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Res 1990; 31:287-296
32. Prudic J, Haskett RF, Mulsant B, et al: Resistance to antidepressant medications and short-term clinical response to ECT. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153:985-992
33. Flint AJ, Rifat SL: The treatment of psychotic depression in later life: a comparison of pharmacotherapy and ECT. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 13:23-28
34. Petrides G, Fink M, Husain MM, et al: ECT remission rates in psychotic versus nonpsychotic depressed patients: a report from CORE. J ECT 2001; 17:244-253
35. Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP, et al: The impact of medication resistance and continuation pharmacotherapy on relapse following response to electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10:96-104
36. Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP, et al: A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparison of bilateral and right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy at different stimulus intensities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:425-434
37. Flint AJ, Rifat SL: The effect of sequential antidepressant treatment on geriatric depression. J Affect Disord 1996; 36:95-105
38. Folkerts HW, Michael N, Tolle R, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy versus paroxetine in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997; 96:334-342
39. Gangadhar B, Kapur R, Kalyanasundaram S: Comparison of electroconvulsive therapy with imipramine in endogenous depression: a double-blind study. Br J Psychiatry 1982; 141:367-371
40. Greenblatt M, Grooser GH, Wechsler HA: Differential response of hospitalized depressed patients in somatic therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1964; 120:935-943
41. Medical Research Council: Clinical Trial of the Treatment of Depressive Illness: Report to the Medical Research Council by its Clinical Psychiatry Committee. BMJ 1965; 1:881-886
42. Nobler MS, Sackeim HA, Moeller JR, et al: Quantifying the speed of symptomatic improvement with electroconvulsive therapy: comparison of alternative statistical methods. Convuls Ther 1997; 13:208-221
43. Segman RH, Shapira B, Gorfine M, et al: Onset and time course of antidepressant action: psychopharmacological implications of a controlled trial of electroconvulsive therapy. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995; 119:440-448
44. Quitkin FM, McGrath PJ, Stewart JW, et al: Can the effects of antidepressants be observed in the first two weeks of treatment? Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 15:390-394
45. Sackeim HA, Devanand DP, Nobler MS: Electroconvulsive therapy, in Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. Edited by Bloom F, Kupfer D. New York, Raven, 1995, pp 1123-1142
46. Husain M, Rush AJ, Fink M, et al: Speed of response and remission in major depressive disorder with acute ECT: a consortium for research in ECT (CORE) report. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65:485-491
47. Nobler MS, Sackeim HA: Electroconvulsive therapy: clinical and biological aspects, in Predictors of Response in Mood Disorders. Edited by Goodnick PJ. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1996, pp 177-198
48. Black DW, Winokur G, Nasrallah A: A multivariate analysis of the experience of 423 depressed inpatients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1993; 9:112-120
49. Hickie I, Parsonage B, Parker G: Prediction of response to electroconvulsive therapy: preliminary validation of a sign-based typology of depression. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157:65-71
50. Hickie I, Mason C, Parker G, et al: Prediction of ECT response: validation of a refined sign-based (CORE) system for defining melancholia. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 169:68-74
51. Sobin C, Prudic J, Devanand DP, et al: Who responds to electroconvulsive therapy? a comparison of effective and ineffective forms of treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 169:322-328
52. Fink M: Is catatonia a primary indication for ECT? Convuls Ther 1989; 5:1-4
53. Fink M: Catatonia: syndrome or schizophrenia subtype? recognition and treatment. J Neural Transm 2001; 108:637-644
54. Hawkins JM, Archer KJ, Strakowski SM, et al: Somatic treatment of catatonia. Int J Psychiatry Med 1995; 25:345-369
55. Mann SC, Caroff SN, Bleier HR, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy of the lethal catatonia syndrome. Convuls Ther 1990; 6:239-247
56. Mann S, Caroff S, Bleier H, et al: Lethal catatonia. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1374-1381
57. Rohiand BM, Carroll BT, Jacoby RG: ECT in the treatment of the catatonic syndrome. J Affect Disord 1993; 29:255-261
58. Philbrick KL, Rummans TA: Malignant catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994; 6:1-13
59. Black DW, Bell S, Hulbert J, et al: The importance of Axis II in patients with major depression: a controlled study. J Affect Disord 1988; 14:115-122
60. Zimmerman M, Coryell W, Pfohl B, et al: ECT response in depressed patients with and without a DSM-III personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1030-1032
61. Buchan H, Johnstone E, McPherson K, et al: Who benefits from electroconvulsive therapy? combined results of the Leicester and - Northwick Park trials. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 160:355-359
62. Pande AC, Grunhaus LJ, Haskett RF, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy in delusional and non-delusional depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 1990; 19:215-219
63. Parker G, Roy K, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, et al: Psychotic (delusional) depression: a meta-analysis of physical treatments. J Affect Disord 1992; 24:17-24
64. Petrides G, Fink M, Husain MM, et al: ECT remission rates in psychotic versus nonpsychotic depressed patients: a report from CORE. J ECT 2001; 17:244-253
65. Mulsant BH, Haskett RF, Prudic J, et al: Low use of neuroleptic drugs in the treatment of psychotic major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:559-561
66. Black DW, Winokur G, Nasrallah A: Illness duration and acute response in major depression. Convuls Ther 1989; 5:338-343
67. Kindler S, Shapira B, Hadjez J, et al: Factors influencing response to bilateral electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. Convuls Ther 1991; 7:245-254
68. O'Connor MK, Knapp R, Husain M, et al: The influence of age on the response of major depression to electroconvulsive therapy: a CORE report. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 9:382-390
69. Sackeim HA: The use of electroconvulsive therapy in late-life depression, in Diagnosis and Treatment of Depression in Late Life. Edited by Schneider LS, Reynolds CF III, Lebowitz BD, et al. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp 259-277
70. Sackeim HA: The use of electroconvulsive therapy in late-life depression, in Geriatric Psychopharmacology, 3rd Edition. Edited by Salzman C. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1998, pp 262-309
71. Tew JDJ, Mulsant BH, Haskett RF, et al: Acute efficacy of ECT in the treatment of major depression in the old-old. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156:1865-1870
72. Rosenbach ML, Hermann RC, Dorwart RA: Use of electroconvulsive therapy in the Medicare population between 1987 and 1992. Psychiatr Serv 1997; 48:1537-1542
73. Thompson JW, Weiner RD, Myers CP: Use of ECT in the United States in 1975, 1980, and 1986. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:1657-1661
74. Thompson J, Blaine J: Use of ECT in the United States in 1975 and 1980. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144:557-562
75. Kramer B: Use of ECT in California, 1977-1983. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142:1190-1192
76. McCall WV, Cohen W, Reboussin B, et al: Pretreatment differences in specific symptoms and quality of life among depressed inpatients who do and do not receive electroconvulsive therapy: a hypothesis regarding why the elderly are more likely to receive ECT. J ECT 1999; 15:193-201
77. Rubin EH, Kinscherf DA, Wehrman SA: Response to treatment of depression in the old and very-old. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1991; 4:65-70
78. Zubenko GS, Mulsant BH, Rifai AH, et al: Impact of acute psychiatric inpatient treatment on major depression in late life and prediction of response. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:987-994
79. Philibert RA, Richards L, Lynch CF, et al: Effect of ECT on mortality and clinical outcome in geriatric unipolar depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56:390-394
80. Bosworth HB, Hays JC, George LK, et al: Psychosocial and clinical predictors of unipolar depression outcome in older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002; 17:238-246
81. Alexopoulos GS, Kiosses DN, Choi SJ, et al: Frontal white-matter microstructure and treatment response of late-life depression: a preliminary study. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159:1929-1932
82. Alexopoulos GS, Kiosses DN, Klimstra S, et al: Clinical presentation of the "depression-executive dysfunction syndrome" of late life. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002; 10:98-106
83. Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, et al: Executive dysfunction and long-term outcomes of geriatric depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:285-290
84. Kalayam B, Alexopoulos GS: Prefrontal dysfunction and treatment response in geriatric depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56:713-718
85. Hickie I, Scott E, Wilhelm K, et al: Subcortical hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging in patients with severe depression: a longitudinal evaluation. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42:367-374
86. Simpson S, Baldwin RC, Jackson A, et al: Is subcortical disease associated with a poor response to antidepressants? neurological, neuropsychological, and neuroradiological findings in late-life depression. Psychol Med 1998; 28:1015-1026
87. Simpson S, Talbot PR, Snowden JS, et al: Subcortical vascular disease in elderly patients with treatment-resistant depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62:196-197
88. Simpson SW, Jackson A, Baldwin RC, et al: 1997 IPA/Bayer Research Awards in Psychogeriatrics: Subcortical hyperintensities in late-life depression: acute response to treatment and neuropsychological impairment. Int Psychogeriatr 1997; 9:257-275
89. Coffey CE, Figiel GS, Djang WT, et al: Leukoencephalopathy in elderly depressed patients referred for ECT. Biol Psychiatry 1988; 24:143-161
90. Steffens DC, Conway CR, Dombeck CB, et al: Severity of subcortical gray-matter hyperintensity predicts ECT response in geriatric depression. J ECT 2001; 17:45-49
91. Robinson RG: Poststroke depression: prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and disease progression. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54:376-387
92. Currier MB, Murray GB, Welch CC: Electroconvulsive therapy for post-stroke depressed geriatric patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992; 4:140-144
93. McCall WV: Cardiovascular risk during ECT: managing the managers (editorial). Convuls Ther 1997; 13:123-124
94. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR: "Mini-Mental State:" J Psychiatr Res 1975; 12:189-198
95. Sobin C, Sackeim HA, Prudic J, et al: Predictors of retrograde amnesia following ECT. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152:995-1001
96. Wechsler D: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3rd Edition. San Antonio, TX, Psychological Corporation, 1997
97. Randt CT, Brown RE: Randt Memory Test. Bayport, NY, Life Science, 1983
98. Buschke H: Selective reminding for analysis of memory and learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1973; 12:543-550
99. Zervas IM, Jandorf L: The Randt Memory Test in electroconvulsive therapy: relation to illness and treatment parameters. Convuls Ther 1993; 9:28-38
100. Lezak MD: Neuropsychological Assessment, 3rd Edition. New York, Oxford University Press, 1995
101. Sivan AB: Benton Visual Retention Test, 5th Edition. San Antonio, TX, Psychological Corporation, 1992
102. Sackeim HA: Memory and ECT: from polarization to reconciliation. J ECT 2000; 16:87-96
103. Lisanby SH, Maddox JH, Prudic J, et al: The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on memory of autobiographical and public events. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:581-590
104. McElhiney M, Moody B, Sackeim H: The Autobiographical Memory Interview, Short Form. New York, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1997
105. Kellner CH: The cognitive effects of ECT: bridging the gap between research and clinical practice (editorial). Convuls Ther 1996; 12:133-135
106. Abrams R: Electroconvulsive Therapy, 2nd Edition. New York, Oxford University Press, 2002
107. Fink M, Abrams R, Bailine S, et al: Ambulatory Electroconvulsive Therapy: Report of a Task Force of the Association for Convulsive Therapy. Convuls Ther 1996; 12:42-55
108. d'Elia G: Unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand (suppl) 1970; 215:1-98
109. Lawson JS, Inglis J, Delva NJ, et al: Electrode placement in ECT: cognitive effects. Psychol Med 1990; 20:335-344
110. Letemendia FJ, Delva NJ, Rodenburg M, et al: Therapeutic advantage of bifrontal electrode placement in ECT. Psychol Med 1993; 23:349-360
111. Bailine SH, Rifkin A, Kayne E, et al: Comparison of bifrontal and bitemporal ECT for major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:121-123
112. Swartz CM: Asymmetric bilateral right frontotemporal left frontal stimulus electrode placement for electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychobiology 1994; 29:174-178
113. Farah A, McCall WV: Electroconvulsive therapy stimulus dosing: a survey of contemporary practices. Convuls Ther 1993; 9:90-94
114. Sackeim HA, Decina P, Kanzler M, et al: Effects of electrode placement on the efficacy of titrated, low-dose ECT. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144:1449-1455
115. Sackeim HA: What's new with ECT. American Society of Clinical Psychopharmacology Progress Notes 1997; 8:27-33
116. McElhiney MC, Moody BJ, Steif BL, et al: Autobiographical memory and mood: effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychology 1995; 9:501-517
117. Daniel W, Crovitz H: Recovery of orientation after electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1982; 66:421-428
118. Daniel W, Crovitz H: Disorientation during electroconvulsive therapy: technical, theoretical, and neuropsychological issues. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; 462:293-306
119. Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP, et al: Effects of stimulus intensity and electrode placement on the efficacy and cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:839-846
120. Robin A, De Tissera S: A double-blind, controlled comparison of the therapeutic effects of low-and high-energy electroconvulsive therapies. Br J Psychiatry 1982; 141:357-366
121. Sackeim HA, Decina P, Portnoy S, et al: Studies of dosage, seizure threshold, and seizure duration in ECT. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22:249-268
122. McCall WV, Reboussin DM, Weiner RD, et al: Titrated, moderately suprathreshold vs. fixed high-dose, right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy: acute antidepressant and cognitive effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:438-444
123. Cronholm B, Ottoson J-O: Ultra-brief stimulus technique in electroconvulsive therapy, II: comparative studies of therapeutic effects and memory disturbances in treatment of endogenous depression with the Either ES electroshock apparatus and Siemens Konvulsator III. J Nerv Ment Dis 1963; 137:268-276
124. Krystal AD, Weiner RD, Coffey CE: The ictal EEG as a marker of adequate stimulus intensity with unilateral ECT. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995; 7:295-303
125. Lerer B, Shapira B, Calev A, et al: Antidepressant and cognitive effects of twice- versus three-times-weekly ECT. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152:564-570
126. Coffey CE, Lucke J, Weiner RD, et al: Seizure threshold in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), II: the anticonvulsant effect of ECT. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37:777-788
127. Sackeim HA: The anticonvulsant hypothesis of the mechanisms of action of ECT: current status. J ECT 1999; 15:5-26
128. McCall WV, Dunn A, Rosenquist PB, et al: Markedly suprathreshold right unilateral ECT versus minimally suprathreshold bilateral ECT: antidepressant and memory effects. J ECT 2002; 18:126-129
129. Riddle WJ, Scott AI, Bennie J, et al: Current intensity and oxytocin release after electroconvulsive therapy. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 15:839-841
130. Sackeim HA, Devanand DP, Prudic J: Stimulus intensity, seizure threshold, and seizure duration: impact on the efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1991; 14:803-843
131. Shapira B, Lidsky D, Gorfine M, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy and resistant depression: clinical implications of seizure threshold. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57:32-38
132. Folkerts H. The ictal electroencephalogram as a marker for the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996; 246:155-164
133. Luber B, Nobler MS, Moeller JR, et al: Quantitative EEG during seizures induced by electroconvulsive therapy: relations to treatment modality and clinical features, II: topographic analyses. J ECT 2000; 16:229-243
134. Nobler MS, Luber B, Moeller JR, et al: Quantitative EEG during seizures induced by electroconvulsive therapy: relations to treatment modality and clinical features, I: global analyses. J ECT 2000; 16:211-228
135. Suppes T, Webb A, Carmody T, et al: Is postictal electrical silence a predictor of response to electroconvulsive therapy? J Affect Disord 1996; 41:55-58
136. Krystal AD, Dean MD, Weiner RD, et al: ECT stimulus intensity: are present ECT devices too limited? Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:963-967
137. Lisanby SH, Devanand DP, Nobler MS, et al: Exceptionally high seizure threshold: ECT device limitations. Convuls Ther 1996; 12:156-164
138. Boylan LS, Haskett RF, Mulsant BH, et al: Determinants of seizure threshold in ECT: benzodiazepine use, anesthetic dosage, and other factors. J ECT 2000; 16:3-18
139. Abrams R: Stimulus titration and ECT dosing. J ECT 2002; 18:3-9
140. Abrams R, Swartz CM: ECT Instruction Manual for the Thymatron® DG. Chicago, Somatics, Inc., 1989
141. Petrides G, Fink M: The "half-age" stimulation strategy for ECT dosing. Convuls Ther 1996; 12:138-146
142. Colenda CC, McCall WV: A statistical model predicting the seizure threshold for right-unilateral ECT in 106 patients. Convuls Ther 1996; 12:3-12
143. Coffey CE, Lucke J, Weiner RD, et al: Seizure threshold in electroconvulsive therapy, I: initial seizure threshold. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37:713-720
144. Krueger RB, Fama JM, Devanand DP, et al: Does ECT permanently alter seizure threshold? Biol Psychiatry 1993; 33:272-276
145. Enns M, Karvelas L: Electrical dose titration for electroconvulsive therapy: a comparison with dose prediction methods. Convuls Ther 1995; 11:86-93
146. McCall W, Farah B, Reboussin D, et al: Comparison of the efficacy of titrated, moderate-dose and fixed, high-dose right-unilateral ECT in elderly patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1995; 3:317-324
147. Datto C, Rai AK, Ilivicky HJ, et al: Augmentation of seizure induction in electroconvulsive therapy: a clinical reappraisal. J ECT 2002; 18:118-125
148. Prien R, Kupfer D: Continuation drug therapy for major depressive episodes: how long should it be maintained? Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:18-23
149. Sackeim HA: Continuation therapy following ECT: directions for future research. Psychopharmacol Bull 1994; 30:501-521
150. Gangadhar BN, Janakiramaiah N, Subbakrishna DK, et al: Twice-versus thrice-weekly ECT in melancholia: a double-blind, prospective comparison. J Affect Disord 1993; 27:273-278
151. Shapira B, Tubi N, Drexler H, et al: Cost and benefit in the choice of ECT schedule: twice versus three times weekly ECT. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 172:44-48
152. Janakiramaiah N, Motreja S, Gangadhar BN, et al: Once versus three times weekly ECT in melancholia: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1998; 98:316-320
153. Kellner CH, Monroe RR Jr, Pritchett J, et al: Weekly ECT in geriatric depression. Convuls Ther 1992; 8:245-252
154. Karlinsky H, Shulman K: The clinical use of electroconvulsive therapy in old age. J Am Geriatr Soc 1984; 32:183-186
155. Spiker DG, Stein J, Rich CL: Delusional depression and electroconvulsive therapy: one year later. Convuls Ther 1985; 1:167-172
156. Aronson TA, Shukla S, Hoff A: Continuation therapy after ECT for delusional depression: a naturalistic study of prophylactic treatments and relapse. Convuls Ther 1987; 3:251-259
157. Grunhaus L, Shipley JE, Eiser A, et al: Shortened REM latency post-ECT is associated with rapid recurrence of depressive symptomatology. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 36:214-222
158. O'Leary DA, Lee AS: Seven-year prognosis in depression: mortality and readmission risk in The Nottingham ECT Cohort. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 169:423-429
159. Flint AJ, Rifat SL: Two-year outcome of psychotic depression in late life. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:178-183
160. Malcolm K, Dean J, Rowlands P, et al: Antidepressant drug treatment in relation to the use of ECT. J Psychopharmacol 1991; 5:255-258
161. Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP: Treatment of medication-resistant depression with electroconvulsive therapy, in Annual Review of Psychiatry, Vol 9. Edited by Tasman A, Goldfinger SM, Kaufmann CA. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1990, pp 91-115
162. Bourgon LN, Kellner CH: Relapse of depression after ECT: a review. J ECT 2000; 16:19-31
163. Grunhaus L, Dolberg OH, Lustig M: Relapse and recurrence following a course of ECT: reasons for concern and strategies for further investigation. J Psychiatr Res 1995; 29:165-172
164. Stoudemire A, Hill CD, Dalton ST, et al: Rehospitalization rates in older depressed adults after antidepressant and electroconvulsive therapy treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42:1282-1285
165. Maletzky BM: Multiple-Monitored Electroconvulsive Therapy. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 1981
166. Maletzky B: Conventional and multiple-monitored electroconvulsive therapy: a comparison in major depressive episodes. J Nerv Ment Dis 1986; 174:257-264
167. Nelson JP, Benjamin L: Efficacy and safety of combined ECT and tricyclic antidepressant drugs in the treatment of depressed geriatric patients. Convulsive Therapy 1989; 5:321-329
168. Lauritzen L, Odgaard K, Clemmesen L, et al: Relapse prevention by means of paroxetine in ECT-treated patients with major depression: a comparison with imipramine and placebo in medium-term continuation therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996; 94:241-251
169. Klapheke MM: Combining ECT and antipsychotic agents: benefits and risks. Convuls Ther 1993; 9:241-255
170. Sackeim HA, Haskett RF, Mulsant BH, et al: Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 285:1299-1307
171. Monroe RRJ: Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1991; 14:947-960
172. Stephens SM, Pettinati HM, Greenberg RM, et al: Continuation and maintenance therapy with outpatient ECT, in The Clinical Science of Electroconvulsive Therapy. Edited by Coffey CE. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp 143-164
173. Loo H, Galinowski A, de C W, et al: Use of maintenance ECT for elderly depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148:810
174. Dubin WR, Jaffe R, Roemer R, et al: The efficacy and safety of maintenance ECT in geriatric patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40:706-709
175. Fox HA: Extended continuation and maintenance ECT for long-lasting episodes of major depression. J ECT 2001; 17:60-64
176. Petrides G, Dhossche D, Fink M, et al: Continuation ECT: relapse prevention in affective disorders. Convuls Ther 1994; 10:189-194
177. Beale MD, Bernstein H, Kellner C: Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for geriatric depression: a one-year follow-up. Clin Gerontol 1996; 16
178. Russell JC, Rasmussen KG, O'Connor MK, et al: Long-term maintenance ECT: a retrospective review of efficacy and cognitive outcome. J ECT 2003; 19:4-9
179. Thornton JE, Mulsant BH, Dealy R, et al: A retrospective study of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in a university-based psychiatric practice. Convuls Ther 1990; 6:121-129
180. Vaidya NA, Mahableshwarkar AR, Shahid R: Continuation and maintenance ECT in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. J ECT 2003; 19:10-16
181. Scott AI, Weeks DJ, McDonald CF: Continuation electroconvulsive therapy: preliminary guidelines and an illustrative case report (see Comments). Br J Psychiatry 1991; 159:867-870
182. Andrade C, Kurinji S: Continuation and maintenance ECT: a review of recent research. J ECT 2002; 18:149-158
183. Kramer BA: A naturalistic review of maintenance ECT at a university setting. J ECT 1999; 15:262-269
184. Kramer BA: Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in clinical practice. Convuls Ther 1990; 6:279-286
185. Clarke TB, Coffey CE, Hoffman GW, et al: Continuation therapy for depression using outpatient electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1989; 5:330-337
186. Kramer BA: A seasonal schedule for maintenance ECT. J ECT 1999; 15:226-231
187. Fox HA: Extended continuation and maintenance ECT for long-lasting episodes of major depression. J ECT 2001; 17:60-64
188. Nelson JP, Benjamin L: Efficacy and safety of combined ECT and tricyclic antidepressant drugs in the treatment of depressed geriatric patients. Convuls Ther 1989; 5:321-329
189. Lauritzen L, Odgaard K, Clemmesen L, et al: Relapse prevention by means of paroxetine in ECT-treated patients with major depression: a comparison with imipramine and placebo in medium-term continuation therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996; 94:241-251
190. Seager CP, Bird RL: Imipramine with electrical treatment in depression: a controlled trial. J Ment Sci 1962; 108:704-707
191. Imlah NW, Ryan E, Harrington JA: The influence of antidepressant drugs on the response to electroconvulsive therapy and on subsequent relapse rates. Neuropsychopharmacology 1965; 4:438-442
192. Kay D, Fahy T, Garside R: A seven-month, double-blind trial of amitriptyline and diazepam in ECT-treated depressed patients. Br J Psychiatry 1970; 117:667-671
193. Fink M, Sackeim HA: Theophylline and ECT. J ECT 1998; 14:286-290
194. Zink M, Sartorius A, Lederbogen F, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy in a patient receiving rivastigmine. J ECT 2002; 18:162-164
195. Abrams R: The mortality rate with ECT. Convuls Ther 1997; 13:125-127
196. Zielinski RJ, Roose SP, Devanand DP, et al: Cardiovascular complications of ECT in depressed patients with cardiac disease. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150:904-909
197. Polvsen UJ, Wildschiodtz G, Hogenhaven H, et al: Nonconvulsive status epilepticus after electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2003; 19:164-169
198. de C AJ, Kohn R: Electroconvulsive therapy and falls in the elderly. J ECT 2000; 16:252-257
199. de C AJ, Kohn R: Risk factors for falling in a psychogeriatric unit. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 16:762-767
200. Figiel GS, Coffey CE, Djang WT, et al: Brain magnetic resonance imaging findings in ECT-induced delirium. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1990; 2:53-58
201. Figiel GS, Krishnan KR, Doraiswamy PM: Subcortical structural changes in ECT-induced delirium. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1990; 3:172-176
202. Figiel GS, Hassen MA, Zorumski C, et al: ECT-induced delirium in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991; 3:405-411
203. Rao V, Lyketsos CG: The benefits and risks of ECT for patients with primary dementia who also suffer from depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000; 15:729-735
204. Benbow SM: ECT for depression in dementia. Br J Psychiatry 1988; 152:859
205. Carlyle W, Killick L, Ancill R: ECT: an effective treatment in the screaming demented patient (letter). J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39:637
206. Krystal AD, Coffey CE: Neuropsychiatric considerations in the use of electroconvulsive therapy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 9:283-292
207. Grant JE, Mohan SN: Treatment of agitation and aggression in four demented patients using ECT. J ECT 2001; 17:205-209
208. Nelson JP, Rosenberg DR: ECT treatment of demented elderly patients with major depression: a retrospective study of efficacy and safety. Convuls Ther 1991; 7:157-165
209. Zwil AS, McAllister TW, Price TR: Safety and efficacy of ECT in depressed patients with organic brain disease: review of a clinical experience. Convuls Ther 1992; 8:103-109
210. Weintraub D, Lippmann SB: ECT for major depression and mania with advanced dementia. J ECT 2001; 17:65-67
211. Fisman M, Rabheru K, Sharma V: Response to ECT in depressed, demented patients: possible role of apolipoprotein e4 as response marker. Int J Geriatr
212. McDonald WM, Thompson TR: Treatment of mania in dementia with electroconvulsive therapy. Psychopharmacol Bull 2001; 35:72-82
213. Roccaforte WH, Wengel SP, Burke WJ: ECT for screaming in dementia (letter). Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000; 8:177