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Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook 2013-2014 (Cental Intelligence Agency, Washington, DC, 2013).
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The World Factbook 2013-2014
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P. Oreopoulos, M. Stabile, L. Roos, R. Walld, J. Hum. Resour. 43, 88-138 (2008).
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Oreopoulos, P.1
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84901210457
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Working paper, University of California at San Diego, Economics Working Paper Series (2010-09-16)
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P. Bharadwaj, J. Eberhard, C. Neilson, "Do initial endowments matter only initially? The persistent effect of birth weight on school achievement health at birth, parental investments, and academic outcomes," Working paper, University of California at San Diego, Economics Working Paper Series (2010-09-16).
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Do Initial Endowments Matter only Initially? The Persistent Effect of Birth Weight on School Achievement Health at Birth, Parental Investments, and Academic Outcomes
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Bharadwaj, P.1
Eberhard, J.2
Neilson, C.3
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8
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84901210458
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If one looks at all births, the fraction of low birth weight among white college-educated mothers has increased more than suggested with Fig. 2 because these mothers are more likely than others to use assisted reproductive technology.
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If one looks at all births, the fraction of low birth weight among white college-educated mothers has increased more than suggested with Fig. 2 because these mothers are more likely than others to use assisted reproductive technology.
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9
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84901210459
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Although much of the literature focuses on low birth weight as a summary of health at birth, disparities are also present if we look at alternative indicators. Prematurity is examined in fig. S1. Infant mortality for African Americans and whites is shown in fig. S2 over the same time period. Information about the mother's education and marital status comes from birth records, so infant mortality by education or marital status groups must be constructed by using linked birth and infant death records, which are missing from some years of the data and are only available up to 2006. Figures S3 and S4 are similar to Figs. 2 and 3, except that they include only mothers 20 to 30 years of age. All of these figures suggest that the trends in low birth weight are not anomalous but are present in other measures of infant health.
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Although much of the literature focuses on low birth weight as a summary of health at birth, disparities are also present if we look at alternative indicators. Prematurity is examined in fig. S1. Infant mortality for African Americans and whites is shown in fig. S2 over the same time period. Information about the mother's education and marital status comes from birth records, so infant mortality by education or marital status groups must be constructed by using linked birth and infant death records, which are missing from some years of the data and are only available up to 2006. Figures S3 and S4 are similar to Figs. 2 and 3, except that they include only mothers 20 to 30 years of age. All of these figures suggest that the trends in low birth weight are not anomalous but are present in other measures of infant health.
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10
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84901210450
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More detailed overviews of factors that have been shown to influence birth weight and of policies that have been shown to be effective in ameliorating the long-term consequences of low birth weight are available in (78).
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More detailed overviews of factors that have been shown to influence birth weight and of policies that have been shown to be effective in ameliorating the long-term consequences of low birth weight are available in (78).
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12
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84901210451
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This is not always the case; for example, higher-income women are more likely to drink during pregnancy, and alcohol is known to have potentially negative effects on the fetus, although this has been difficult to establish in population studies. However, a recent Swedish study links increases in in utero alcohol exposure, because of a temporary relaxation of drinking laws, to lower adult educational attainment, cognitive ability, wages, and employment (79).
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This is not always the case; for example, higher-income women are more likely to drink during pregnancy, and alcohol is known to have potentially negative effects on the fetus, although this has been difficult to establish in population studies. However, a recent Swedish study links increases in in utero alcohol exposure, because of a temporary relaxation of drinking laws, to lower adult educational attainment, cognitive ability, wages, and employment (79).
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16
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84900335477
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Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion Papers 7006 IZA, Bonn, Germany
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P. Bharadwaj, J. V. Johnsen, K. V. Loken, Smoking Bans, Maternal Smoking and Birth Outcomes, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion Papers 7006 (IZA, Bonn, Germany, 2012).
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Smoking Bans, Maternal Smoking and Birth Outcomes
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Bharadwaj, P.1
Johnsen, J.V.2
Loken, K.V.3
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Working paper 18876, NBER
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J. Currie, J. S. Graff-Zivin, K. Meckel, M. J. Neidell, W. Schlenker, "Something in the water: Contaminated drinking water and infant health," Working paper 18876, NBER (2013).
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Something in the Water: Contaminated Drinking Water and Infant Health
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Currie, J.1
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J. R. Vest, T. K. Catlin, J. J. Chen, R. C. Brownson, Am. J. Prev. Med. 22, 156-164 (2002).
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24
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84901210453
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Arguably the single most important policy change was Congressional passage of the National Violence Against Women Act of 1994, which provided $1.6 billion in resources for local law enforcement and community groups.
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Arguably the single most important policy change was Congressional passage of the National Violence Against Women Act of 1994, which provided $1.6 billion in resources for local law enforcement and community groups.
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26
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77249163715
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T. Seeman, E. Epel, T. Gruenewald, A. Karlamangla, B. S. McEwen, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186, 223-239 (2010).
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Seeman, T.1
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30
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84901210455
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Currie and Rossin-Slater (29) did not include any direct measures of stress but assumed that mothers in the hurricane's direct path were subject to greater stress than were mothers in similar areas off the path.
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Currie and Rossin-Slater (29) did not include any direct measures of stress but assumed that mothers in the hurricane's direct path were subject to greater stress than were mothers in similar areas off the path.
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32
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W. Lin, Health Econ. 18, 823-841 (2009).
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Lin, W.1
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33
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They found that increasing Medicaid eligibility by 30 percentage points reduced the probability of a low-birth-weight birth by 1.9% and infant mortality by 8.5%.
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They found that increasing Medicaid eligibility by 30 percentage points reduced the probability of a low-birth-weight birth by 1.9% and infant mortality by 8.5%.
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41
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84901210444
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These results echo earlier findings that the legalization of abortion in the United States improved the outcomes of surviving cohorts of children (80).
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These results echo earlier findings that the legalization of abortion in the United States improved the outcomes of surviving cohorts of children (80).
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42
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84901210445
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Evidence that restricting Medicaid funding of abortions increased birth rates is available in (81).
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Evidence that restricting Medicaid funding of abortions increased birth rates is available in (81).
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45
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84901210446
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Similarly, the eradication of malaria in the U.S. South produced gains for the affected cohorts (82). Improvements in health in the late 1800s and early 1900s have been associated with improved health at older ages (83).
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Similarly, the eradication of malaria in the U.S. South produced gains for the affected cohorts (82). Improvements in health in the late 1800s and early 1900s have been associated with improved health at older ages (83).
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47
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84868199321
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53
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84901210447
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The corresponding figures for infants with gestations of 39 to 41 weeks are 0.243 and 0.138, although excessive weight gain during pregnancy is also associated with poor pregnancy outcomes (84). In addition, high weight gain is actually less common in disadvantaged women (85).
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The corresponding figures for infants with gestations of 39 to 41 weeks are 0.243 and 0.138, although excessive weight gain during pregnancy is also associated with poor pregnancy outcomes (84). In addition, high weight gain is actually less common in disadvantaged women (85).
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59
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84901210448
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There is a third potential mechanism that has to do with parental preferences. Parents may want to equalize outcomes among their children (in which case, they would invest more in the least healthy); or, they may want to have at least one child who is very successful, in which case they might invest most in the healthiest child. Evidence on this point is somewhat mixed in developed countries (86, 87).
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There is a third potential mechanism that has to do with parental preferences. Parents may want to equalize outcomes among their children (in which case, they would invest more in the least healthy); or, they may want to have at least one child who is very successful, in which case they might invest most in the healthiest child. Evidence on this point is somewhat mixed in developed countries (86, 87).
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84897016204
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Working paper, Institute for International Economic Studies, available at
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J. P. Nilsson, "Alcohol Availability, Prenatal Conditions, and Long-term Economic Outcomes," Working paper, Institute for International Economic Studies, 2014; available at https://sites.google.com/site/ nilssonjanpeter.
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