Poland's threatening other: The image of the jew from 1880 to the present

Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-386

  Michlic, Joanna Beata ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84900655175     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (101)

1. For a discussion and examples of this new language in reference to Jews, see Antony Polonsky and Joanna B.Michlic, eds., The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland (Princeton and Oxford, 2004), 40-42, 130-32, 155-65.
2. See also Joanna Michlic, "Coming to Terms with the 'Dark Past': The Polish Debate about the Jedwabne Massacre," Acta: Analysis of Current Trends in Anti-Semitism, no. 21 (Jerusalem) (2002): 29-32.
3. Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M. Tipton, Habits of Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (New York, 1985), 153.
4. Alina Cała, "The Question of the Assimilation of Jews in the Polish Kingdom (1864-1897): An Interpretive Essay," Polin 1 (1986): 130-50. Also see the work of Belgian scholar Alix Ladngrebe, "Wenn es Polen nich gäbe, dann müsste es erfunden werden": Die Entricklung des polnischen National beWussteins im Europäischen kontext von 1830 bis in die 1880er Tahre (Wiesbaden, 2003).
5. Marcin Kula, "Problem postkomunistyczny czy historycznie ukształtowany polski problem?" Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego (BZIH), no. 4 (1991): 27.
6. See Andre W. M. Gerrits, "Paradox of Freedom: The 'Jewish Question' in Post-Communist East Central Europe," in Ian M. Cuthbertson and Jane Leibowitz, eds., Minorities: The New Europe's Old Issues (Prague, 1993), 88-109.
7. Jolanta Ambrosiewicz-Jacobs and Anna Maria Orla-Bukowska, "After the Fall: Attitudes towards Jews in post-1989 Poland," Nationalities Papers, no. 2 (1998): 267.
8. See Iwona Irwin-Zarecka, Neutralizing Memory: The Jew in Contemporary Poland (New Brunswick and Oxford, 1989), 165.
9. Frank Golczewski, "Anti-Semitic Literature in Poland before the First World War," Polin 4 (1989): 88.
10. Jerzy Tomaszewski, "The History of Jews in Poland 1944-1968," The Best of Midrasz, special issue of Midrasz (1998): 47.
11. See Joanna Michlic-Coren, "The Troubling Past: The Polish Collective Memory of the Holocaust," East European Jewish Affairs 29, nos. 1-2 (1999): 77-78.
12. On the subject of communitarian rights in liberal thought, seeWill Kymlicka, Liberalism Community and Culture (Oxford, 1989); and Will Kymlicka, ed., The Rights of Minority Cultures (Oxford, 1995).
13. LeonardW. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism: Their Psychological Foundations (New Haven and London, 1964);
14. Aleksander Hertz, The Jews in Polish Culture (Evanston il, 1988) (first published in Polish in 1964); Hertz, "Swoi," 145-64; and James Aho, The Thing of Darkness: A Sociology of the Enemy (London, 1994).
15. See Walter P. Zenner, Minorities in the Middle: A Cross-Cultural Analysis (New York, 1991), 48-49.
16. Krystyna Kersten, "The 'Jewish Communism' Stereotype (The Polish Case)," in Andre Gerrits and Nanci Adler, eds., The Vampires Unstaked: National Images, Stereotypes and Myths in East Central Europe (Amsterdam and Oxford, 1995), 146.
17. Theodore R.Weeks, "Poles, Jews and Russians, 1863-1914: The Death of the Ideal of Assimilation in the Kingdom of Poland," Polin 12 (1999): 256. This is an example of the third approach, characterized by fine scholarship and a nonprejudiced perception of Jews.
18. See Andrzej Jaszczuk, Spór Pozytywistów z Konserwatystami o przyszlóśc Polski 1870-1903 (Warsaw, 1986), 207-8. On the early position of pps toward Jews, see Zimmerman, Poles, Jews, 126-90; and Alina Kowalczykowa, Piłsudski i Tradycja (Chotomow, 1991), 46-50.
19. For a discussion of Casimir the Great's achievements, see Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture (New York, 2001), 36-40. In this book the author makes a conscious effort to discuss all ethnic and religiouscultural groups that lived in premodern Poland.
20. On the first increase in newcomers in thirteenth-century Poland, see Benedykt Zientara, "Melioratio Terrae: The Thirteenth-Century Breakthrough in Polish History," in J. K. Fedorowicz, A Republic of Nobles: Studies in Polish History to 1864 (Cambridge, 1982), 28-47.
21. See, e.g., Antoni Zawadzki, Polska przedrozbiorowa a Żydzi (Warsaw, 1939), 20-25; and Antoni Marylski, Dzieje sprawy żydowskiej w Polsce (Warsaw, 1912), 72-80.
22. On Polish society under the Jagiellonian dynasty, see, e.g., Henryk Samsonowicz, "Polish Politics and Society under the Jagiellonian Monarchy," in Fedorowicz, A Republic, 49-69.
23. On the role of Jews in the colonization of the Ukraine, see, e.g., Shmuel Ettinger, "Helkam shel ha-Yehudim be-kolonizatsyah shelUkr'enah 1569-1648," Zion 21 (1956): 119-24. Ettinger estimates that across theUkraine, in 1569, Jews lived in 24 settlements with a total population of 4,000. By the 1648 uprising Jews lived in 115 settlements and numbered approximately 51,525.
24. See Irena Gieysztorowa, "Research into Demographic History of Poland: A Provisional Summing-up," Acta Poloniae Historica, no. 18 (1968): 11. Weinryb cites similar figure in The Jews (107).
25. Fram, Ideals, 17. On the fate of Protestantism during the Counter-Reformation, see Janusz Tazbir, "The Fate of Polish Protestantism in the Seventeenth Century," in Fedorowicz, A Republic, 198-217.
26. See Jerzy Łukowski, Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century, 1697-1795 (NewYork, 1991), 27. According to some other estimates, the nobility in Poland constituted 9 percent of the population: see Edmund Lewandowski, Character narodowy Polaków i innych (London andWarsaw, 1995), 105.
27. See M. J. Rosman, "Jewish Perceptions of Insecurity and Powerlessness in 16th-18th Century Poland," Polin 1 (1986): 19.
28. See Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of Jews (New York, 1976), 16: 138-39.
29. See Janusz Tazbir, Szlaki kultury polskiej (Warsaw, 1986), 160.
30. See Gershon D. Hundert, "Some Basic Characteristics of the Jewish Experience in Poland," Polin 1 (1986): 31.
31. Stanisław Staszic, "Przestrogi dla Polski," in Stanisław Suchodolski, ed., Pisma filozoficzne i społeczne (Warsaw, 1954), 299-300.
32. John Thomas James, Journal of a Tour in Germany, Sweden, Russia, Poland, in 1813-1814 (London, 1819), cited in Hundert, Jews in Poland-Lithuania, 19.
33. On the phases of emancipation, see Jacob Katz, Emancipation and Assimilation: Studies in Modern Jewish History (Franborough, 1972), 22. On the political theory of Jewish emancipation, see Amos Funkenstein, Perceptions of Jewish History (Berkeley and Oxford, 1993), 221-22.
34. On the definitions and problems of acculturation and assimilation, see Jonathan Frankel and Steven Zipperstein, eds., Assimilation and Community: The Jews in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge, 1992); andMarsha Rozenblit, The Jews of Vienna, 1867-1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany, 1983).
35. Wiesław Władyka, ed., Inniẃsród swoich (Warsaw, 1994), 75, 107.
36. Mirosława Zakrzewska-Dubasowa, Ormianie w dawnej Polsce (Lublin, 1982), 311.
37. For the literary representation of Jankiel, see Adam Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz (New York, 1992), 165-66. On the discussion among Polish émigré circles of Mickiewicz's representation of Israel as the Older Brother, including critical reactions, see Maria Janion, Do Europy tak, ale razem z naszymi umarłymi (Warsaw, 2000), 53-71, 73-90. On the contradictions and complexities of Mickiewicz's messianism, see also Eile, Literature, 46-54.
38. Cyprian Kamil Norwid, "Żydowie polscy," trans.Harold B. Segel, inHarold B. Segel, Stranger in OurMidst: Images of the Jew in Polish Literature (Ithaca and London, 1996), 89.
39. See Alina Kowalczykowa, "Kraszewski wWarszawie," Rocznik Warszawski (1992): 206. On the evolution of Kraszewski's perception of Jews, see Opalski and Bartal, Poles, 64-65.
40. Klemens Junosza-Szaniawski, Nasi żydzi w miasteczkach i na wsiach (Warsaw, 1889), 124, cited in Cała, Asymilacja, 213.
41. On German liberals' attitudes toward Jews in the late nineteenth century, see Uriel Tal, Christians and Jews in Germany: Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Second Reich, 1870-1914 (Ithaca and London, 1975). On historical and contemporary problems inherent to liberalism in its treatment of the cultural rights of groups, see Kymlicka, The Rights.
42. Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2004), 7.
43. Adam Boryna, Antysemityzm a kwestia żydowska, cited in Adolf Nowaczýnski, Mocarstwo Anonimowe (ankieta w sprawie żydowskiej) (Warsaw, 1921), 237.
44. On the importance of Catholicism in shaping Polish nationalism and national identity, see Z. Anthony Kruszewski, "Nationalism and Politics: Poland," in George Klein andMilan J. Reban, eds., The Politics Of Ethnicity in Eastern Europe (New York, 1981), 151.
45. For a concise biography of Teodor Jeske-Choínski, see Władyslaw Niemirycz and Wacław Olszak, eds., Polski Słownik Biograficzny (Wroclaw, 1978), 10: 194-95.
46. Iwan Franko, "Jezuityzm w kwestii żydowskiej," Tydzién, no. 12 (1898): 89, 90-91, cited in large excerpts in Jagiełło, Próba, 1: 38-39.
47. Wilhelm Feldman, Rzecz o Narodowej Demokracji (Krakow, 1902), 4.
48. See Roman Dmowski, Upadek mýsli konserwatywnej w Polsce (1914; Czȩ stochowa, 1938).
49. See Edward D. Wynot, "The Polish Peasant Party and the Jews, 1918-1939," in Israel Gutman, Ezra Mendelsohn, Jehuda Reinharz, and Chone Shmeruk, The Jews of Poland between TwoWorldWars (Hanover and London, 1989), 39-41.
50. See Roman Dmowski, "Podstawy polityki polskiej," in Torúnczyk, Narodowa, 73.
51. Ludwik Oberlaender, "Ewolucja pogla̧dów Narodowej Demokracji w sprawie żydowskiej," Miesi̧ecznik żydowski, no. 1 (1931): 5-6.
52. On Edouard Drumont, see, e.g., Pierre Birenbaum, "Gregoire, Dreyfus, Drancy and the Rue Copernic: Jews at the Heart of French History," in Pierra Nora, ed., Realms of Memory (New York, 1996), 1: 381-87.
53. Roman Dmowski, Kwestia żydowska. Separatyzm Żydow i jegózródła (Warsaw, 1909), 29.
54. See Szymon Rudnicki, Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny. Geneza i działalnóśc (Warsaw, 1985), 58-59.
55. See Salo Wittmayer Baron, Ethnic Minority Rights: Some Older and Newer Trends (Oxford, 1985), 19.
56. Joel Cang, "The Opposition Parties in Poland and Their Attitude towards the Jews and the Jewish Problem," Jewish Social Studies 1 (1939): 245.
57. See Olaf Bergman, Narodowa Demokracja wobec problematyki żydowskiej w latach 1918-1929 (Poznan, 1998). See critical reviews of Bergman's book by Szymon Rudnicki, in Polin 14 (2001): 399-402; and by Israel Oppenheim, in Gal-Ed 18 (2000).
58. Ezra Mendelsohn, "Interwar Poland: Good or Bad for the Jews?" in Abramsky, Jachimczyk, and Polonsky, The Jews, 135-36. Polish social historian Jan Kofman makes a similar critical evaluation of such an approach in Nacjonalizm gospodarczy-szansa czy bariera rozwoju (Warsaw, 1992), 80-81.
59. Apolinary Hartglas, "Żółta łata (Sprawa ograniczén prawnych)," part 1, in Yitzhak Gruenbaum, ed., Materiały w sprawie żydowskiej w Polsce (Warsaw, 1922), 5: 8.
60. Moshe Sneh (Kleinbaum), "Hoser omez ba-zad ha-yehudi," cited in Vital, A People, 799.
61. See Władysław Studnicki, Sprawa polsko-żydowska (Warsaw, 1936), 5. For a contemporary critical review of Studnicki's work, see Sprawy Narodowósciowe, no. 3 (1936): 319-20.
62. On the problem of the violation of equal rights for Jews in interwar Poland, see Bernard D.Weinryb, Jewish Emancipation under Attack (New York, 1942), 32-34, 63-64; and Jerzy Tomaszewski, "The Civil Rights of Jews in Poland," Polin 8 (1994): 115-28.
63. "Deklaracja ideowa StowarzyszeniaMłodzieży Akademickiej Odrodzenie," Pra̧d, nos. 4-5 (1923). A large excerpt is cited in Jagiełło, Próba, 1: 144-45.
64. Ryszard Michalski, Obraz żyda i narodu Żydowskiego na łamach polskiej prasy pomorskiej w latach 1920-1939 (Torun, 1997), 26-30.
65. Dariusz Libionka, "Duchowiénstwo diecezji łomżynskiej wobec antysemityzmu i zagładyŻydów," in Pawel Machcewicz and Krzysztof Persak, eds.,Wokół Jedwabnego (Warsaw, 2002), 1: 105-28.
66. See Colonel Adam Koc, "Ideowo-polityczna deklaracja płk. A. Koca," Przegla̧d Katolicki, 28 Feb. 1937, 130-32.
67. On the subject of attempts at Communist rebellion and Communist attitudes to the Polish-Soviet War of 1920, see Antoni Czubínski, Komunistyczna Partia Polski (1918-1938). Zarys historii (Warsaw, 1985), 42-71.
68. Waldemar Olszewski, Úzródeł antysemityzmu (Wilno, 1937), 1-12.
69. Karol Stojanowski, Chłop a pánstwo narodowe (Poznan, 1937), 21.
70. On the membership of Jews in the kpp and their role in the party, see Jaff Schatz, The Generation: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Communists of Poland (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford, 1991), 75-102.
71. See also Moshe Mishkinsky, "The Communist Party of Poland and the Jews," in Gutman et al., The Jews, 56-74. The latter also contains an important discussion of the Communist perspective on anti-Semitism.
72. Jeffrey S. Kopstein and Jason Wittenberg, "Who Voted Communist? Reconsidering the Social Bases of Radicalism in Interwar Poland," Slavic Review 62, no. 1 (2003): 106.
73. Roman Dmowski, "Przewrót," in RomanWapínski, ed., Roman Dmowski.Wybór pism (Warsaw, 1990), 323.
74. Roman Dmowski, "Historia szlachetnego socjalisty-przyczynek do psychologii politycznej społeczénstwa polskiego," Przegla̧d Wszechpolski (1903), 758-72, cited in Torúnczyk, Narodowa, 174.
75. On this subject, see Jerzy Tomaszewski, "Dokumenty o zaburzeniach antysemickich na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim na jesieni 1931 roku," BZIH, no. 2 (1997): 77; and Rudnicki, Obóz, 112-13.
76. Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, "Nie istnieja̧ sytuacje bez wyj́scia," Kultura (1936), cited in Landau-Czajka, "Image," 165-66.
77. On the project of the cultural purification of the nation by ethno-nationalists, see Smith, "Ethnic Nationalism," 191-92.
78. Reverent Stanisław Trzeciak, Pornografia narzȩdziem obcych agentur (Warsaw, 1929), 45.
79. See Jerzy Tomaszewski, "Pínsk, Saturday 5 April 1919," Polin 1 (1986): 227-51;
80. Sarunas Liekes, Lidia Miliakova, and Antony Polonsky, "Three Documents on Anti-Jewish Violence in the Eastern Kresy during the Polish-Soviet Conflict," Polin 14 (2001): 116-49.
81. See Jerzy Tomaszewski, "Trzeci maja 1919 roku w Rzeszowie," Almanach Żydowski, 1996-97, 7-16; and Adam Penkalla, "The Przytyk Incidents of 9 March 1936 from Archival Documents," Polin 5 (1990): 327-59.
82. See Witold Stankiewicz, Konflikty społeczne na wsi polskiej 1918-1920 (Warsaw, 1963), 159-63; Tomaszewski, "Trzeci maja," 7-16.
83. See Jolanta Żyndul, "Zaj́scia antyżydowskie 1935-1937. Geografia i formy," BZIH, no. 3 (1991): 69.
84. Zbigniew Dymecki, "W obliczu czerwonego niebezpieczénstwa. Agentury komunizmu w Polsce," Alma Mater, nos. 6-7 (1938): 4.
85. Adolf Reutt, speech, "Rola Polskiẃsród innych narodów wielkich," published in Pro Christo, no. 11 (Nov. 1936): 10-12.
86. Andrzej Penkalla, "Zaj́scia przytyckie 9 marca 1936 roku," Kultura, no. 9 (1989): 10.
87. Shmuel Krakowski, "The Polish Underground and the Extermination of the Jews," Polin 9 (1996): 138.
88. Emanuel Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations during the SecondWorldWar (Evanston il, 1992), 7-8. The work was written in theWarszawa Ghetto in the Polish language.
89. David Blatman, "The Past Refuses to Vanish," East European Jewish Affairs 27, no. 1 (1997): 57-60. For a discussion of the prewar school of history writing advocated by Jewish historians, see, e.g., Ruta Sakowska's introduction in Ruta Sakowska, ed., Archiwum Ringelbluma. Konspiracyjne Archiwum Getta Warszawy, vol. 1, Listy o Zagładzie (Warsaw, 1997), 11-13.
90. See Andrzej Friszke, "Publicystyka Polski podziemnej wobec zagładyŻydów," inWojciech Wrzesínski, ed., Polska-Polacy-mniejszósci narodowe (Wroclaw, 1992), 193-213. This was perhaps the first article by a Polish historian in which a critical albeit cautious stance toward the historical material is advocated. See also Andrzej Friszke's more recent article, which critically discusses the issue of attitudes toward Jews in the press in the gg: "Attitudes toward the Jews in the Polish Underground Press, 1939-1944," in Bankier and Gutman, Nazi Europe, 163-74.
91. See Paweł Korzec and Jean-Charles Szurek, "Jews and Poles under Soviet Occupation (1939-1941): Conflicting Interests," Polin 4 (1989): 204-25; and Krystyna Kersten, Polacy Żydzi Komunizm. Anatomia półprawd 1939-68 (Warsaw, 1992), 30-31.
92. Ben-Cion Pinchuk, "Facing Hitler and Stalin: On the Subject of Jewish 'Collaboration' in Soviet-Occupied Eastern Poland, 1939-1941," in Zimmerman, Contested Memories, 61.
93. See Percy S. Cohen, Jewish Radicals and Radical Jews (London, New York, andToronto, 1980), 85-88.
94. Stanisław Ossowski, "Na tle wydarzén kieleckich," Kúznica, no. 38 (1946): 123-25.
95. See Jerzy Andrzejewski, "Zagadnienie polskiego antysemityzmu," Odrodzenie, no. 27 (1946): 4, and no. 28 (1946): 3. For an analysis of the reactions of left-wing Polish intellectuals to the Holocaust and anti-Semitism in early postwar Poland. see Joanna Michlic, "The Holocaust and Its Aftermath as Perceived in Poland: Voices of Polish Intellectuals, 1945-1947," in David Bankier, ed., "The Jews are Coming Back": The Return of Jews to Their Countries of Origin in Europe after WWII (Jerusalem, 2005), 206-30. For an analysis of the reactions of various media toward the Holocaust and anti-Semitism, see Dariusz Libionka, "Antysemityzm i zagłada na łamach prasy w Polsce w latach 1945-46," Polska 1944/45-1989: Studia i materiały 2 (1996): 151-90.
96. Andrzej Werblan, "Przyczynek do genezy konfliktu," Miesi̧ecznik Literacki, June 1968, 3-4. For excerpts in English, see Anti-Jewish Campaign, 47-48.
97. Tadeusz Gajcy, "Już nie potrzebujeme," Poezja, no. 8 (1969): 5-9 (orig. pub. 1943).
98. See Stefan Wilkanowicz, "Jego trudny testament," Wprost, 3 Apr. 2005, http://www.wprost.pl/drukuj/?O=75315.
99. See Shevah Eden, "Attempts to Use Historical and Literary Textbooks in Poland and Israel to Foster Mutual Understanding", Polin 14 (2001): 306-14.
100. See Andrzej Bryk, "Polish Society Today and the Memory of the Holocaust," in Yehuda Bauer et al., Remembering for the Future:Working Papers and Addenda (Oxford, 1989), 3: 2373. See also the report of a team of nine Polish scholars of the Jewish Historical Institute on how the Holocaust is presented in history textbooks, BZIH, nos. 3-4 (1997); and Hanna Wȩgrzynek, The Treatment of Jewish Themes in Polish Schools (New York, 1998).
101. See Joanna Michlic, " 'The Heart of Darkness' in Polish-Jewish Relations: On the Study of Polish-Jewish Relations during the Second World War in the Aftermath of Jan Tomasz Gross's Sa̧ siedzi," Gal-Ed 19 (2004): 95-105 (in Hebrew).