A culture of everyday credit: Housekeeping, pawnbroking, and governance in Mexico City, 1750-1920

A Culture of Everyday Credit: Housekeeping, Pawnbroking, and Governance in Mexico City, 1750-1920

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-415

  Francois, Marie Eileen ^a  

^a NONE

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References (539)

1. For a discussion of restricted money circulation, see Ruggiero Romano, Monedas, seudomonedas, y circulación monetaria en las economías de México (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1998), 116, 133, 135-37, 148. For pawning practice in the seventeenth century
2. see R. Douglas Cope, The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico City, 1660-1720 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), 110-12.
3. This work continues an emerging trend in "everyday" Mexican history, much of it inspired by James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
4. See Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994);
5. Richard Boyer, "Negotiating Calidad: The Everyday Struggle for Status in Mexico," Historical Archeology 31, no. 1 (1997): 64-72;
6. Mark Wasserman, Everyday Life and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000).
7. See also María Odila Silva Dias, Power and Everyday Life: The Lives of Working Women in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (Rutgers: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
8. D. S. Parker, The Idea of the Middle Class: White-Collar Workers and Peruvian Society, 1900-1950 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998). Recent scholarship has disassembled stereotypes about and elite labels for nonelites-"léperos," "vagos," "populacho."
9. Pablo Piccato, City of Suspects: Crime in Mexico City, 1900-1931 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001);
10. Robert Buffington, Criminal and Citizen in Modern Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000);
11. Silvia Arrom, Containing the Poor: The Mexico City Poor House, 1774-1871 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000).
12. Patricia Seed, "Social Dimensions of Race: Mexico City, 1753," Hispanic American Historical Review 62, no. 4 (November 1982): 569-606;
13. Michael Scardaville, "Crime and the Urban Poor in the Late Colonial Period" (PhD diss., University of Florida, 1977).
14. Timothy Anna, The Fall of the Royal Government in Mexico City (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 22. "Mestizo" refers to Indian and European parentage; "mulatto" refers to African and European parentage.
15. Silvia Arrom, The Women of Mexico City, 1790-1857 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), 101. For the relationship between race and class in the colonial period
16. see John K. Chance and William B. Taylor, "Estate and Class in a Colonial City: Oaxaca in 1792," Comparative Studies in Society and History 19 (Oct. 1977): 454-87;
17. Robert McCaa, Stuart B. Schwartz, and Arturo Grubessich, "Race and Class in Colonial Latin America: A Critique," Comparative Studies in Society and History 21, no. 3 (July 1979): 421-33;
18. Seed, "Social Dimensions of Race"; Magnus Mörner, "Economic Factors and Stratification in Colonial Spanish America with Special Regard to Elites," Hispanic American Historical Review 63, no. 2 (May 1983): 335-69;
19. Cope, Limits, 9-26, 49-67. On mobility at the end of the eighteenth century of individuals between ethnic categories, including mobility from nonwhite into white categories
20. see Bruce A. Castelman, "Social Climbers in a Colonial Mexican City: Individual Mobility within the Sistema de Castas in Orizaba, 1777-1791," Colonial Latin American Review 10, no. 2 (2001): 229-49;
21. Steve J. Stern, The Secret History of Gender: Women, Men and Power in Late Colonial Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 26, 35;
22. Anna, Fall, 9, 12-13.
23. Frederick John Shaw Jr. "Poverty and Politics in Mexico City, 1824-1854" (PhD diss., University of Florida, 1975), 49.
24. "Ciclo Histórico. 1907. Juego para Niños. Dispuesto por el Señor Profesor Don Andrés Oscoy," reproduced in Artes de Mexico: El Arte de la Suerte 13 (1991): 43.
25. My understanding of the broad scope of housekeeping comes from a synthesis of a wide literature. Feminist scholars such as Laura Balbo, Rayna Rapp, and Christine Stansell and historians of gender in Latin America such as Asunción Lavrín, Silvia Arrom, Donna Guy, Steve Stern, and Ann Blum have examined interdomestic relations (conflictual or consensual) and gendered divisions of labor and roles within the family. See Laura Balbo, "The Servicing Work of Women and the Capitalist State," Political Power and Social Theory 3 (1982): 251-70;
26. Rayna Rapp, "Family and Class in Contemporary America," in Rethinking the Family: Some Feminist Questions, ed. Barrie Thorne and Marilyn Yalom, 47-70 (New York: Longman, 1982);
27. Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987);
28. Asunción Lavrin, "Lo femenino: Women in Colonial Historical Sources," in Coded Encounters: Writing, Gender, and Ethnicity in Colonial Latin America, ed. Francisco Cevallos-Candau, Jeffrey A. Cole, Nina M. Scott, and Nicomedes Suárez-Araúz, 153-76 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994); Arrom, Women;
29. Donna J. Guy, "Women, Peonage and Industrialization: Argentina, 1810-1914," Latin American Research Review 16, no. 3 (1981): 65-89
30. "Lower-Class Families, Women, and the Law in Nineteenth Century Argentina," Journal of Family History 10, no. 3 (1985): 318-31;
31. Stern, Secret History; and Ann S. Blum, "Cleaning the Revolutionary Household: Domestic Servants and Public Welfare in Mexico City, 1900-1935," Journal of Women's History 15, no. 4 (2004): 67-90.
32. See also Richard R. Wilk, "Decision Making and Resource Flows within the Household: Beyond the Black Box," in The Household Economy: Reconsidering the Domestic Mode of Production, ed. Richard Wilk, 23-52 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989);
33. Sarah Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780-1854 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), esp. 189-216;
34. Eileen Boris, "The Home as Workplace: Deconstructing Dichotomies," International Review of Social History 39 (1994): 415-28;
35. Diana diZerega Wall, "Family Meals and Evening Parties: Constructing Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century Middle-Class New York," in Lines That Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, ed. James A. Delle, Stephen A. Mrozowski, and Robert Paynter, 111-12 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000);
36. Mary Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York 1790-1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). On "presentation" as a structure of consumption that includes the work of domestic servants
37. see Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 184.
38. E. P. Thomson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage, 1963). For discussion of how to define the English "middle station,"
39. see Peter Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
40. In contrast, classic cultural history of the "Porfirian persuasion" portrays Mexican society as split in two, with a small elite and largely undifferentiated pueblo during the rule of Porfirio Díaz. William H. Beezley, Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes of Porfirian Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987).
41. Manuel Gutierrez Najera, "La historia de un peso falso," in Antología de la literatura mexicana, ed. Carlos Castillo, 294-302 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), quotes on 294-95.
42. Irene Elena Motts, La vida en la ciudad de México en las primeras décadas del siglo (México: Editorial Porrúa, 1973), 7.
43. Middle-class rank-and-file protagonists in the revolution beginning in 1910, in the capital or elsewhere, have not been a focus of historiography. For recent studies of urban revolutionary activity that emphasize working classes, see John Lear, Workers, Neighbors, and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001);
44. Andrew Grant Wood, Revolution in the Street: Women, Workers, and Urban Protest in Veracruz, 1870-1927 (Wilmington de: Scholarly Resources, 2001).
45. Barbara Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury: Debts and Taxes in Mexico, 1821-1856 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
46. William Chester Jordan, Women and Credit in Pre-Industrial and Developing Societies (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 125.
47. See also Grethe Jacobsen, "Women's Work and Women's Role: Ideology and Reality in Danish Urban Society, 1300-1550," The Scandinavian Economic History Review and Economy and History 30 (1983): 3-20.
48. Greenow, Credit and Socioeconomic Change; Asunción Lavrin and Edith Couturier, "Dowries and Wills: A View of Women's Socioeconomic Role in Colonial Guadalajara and Puebla, 1640-1790," Hispanic American Historical Review 59, no. 2 (May 1979): 280-304.
49. Carlos G. Vélez-Ibañez, Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations among Urban Mexicans and Chicanos (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1983). A number of historical studies mention pawning systems in Spanish America, though none provide systematic analysis.
50. See Donald Chipman, "The Will of Nuño de Guzmán: President, Governor and Captain General of New Spain and the Province of Pánuco, 1558," The Americas 35, no. 2 (1978): 238-48;
51. Cuauhtemoc Velasco Avila, "Labour Relations in Mining: Real de Monte and Pachuca, 1824-74," in Miners and Mining in the Americas, ed. Thomas Greaves and William Culver, 47-67 (Manchester uk: Manchester University Press, 1985), 61;
52. Frank Solomon, "Indian Women of Early Colonial Quito as Seen through Their Testaments," The Americas 44, no. 3 (1988): 325-41;
53. Bianca Premo, "From the Pockets of Women: The Gendering of the Mita, Migration and Tribute in Colonial Chuchito, Peru," The Americas 57, no. 1 (July 2000): 63-94;
54. Jane Erin Mangan, "Enterprise in the Shadow of Silver: Colonial Andeans and the Culture of Trade in Potosí, 1570-1700" (PhD diss., Duke University, 1999), esp. chap. 4;
55. Christine Hunefeldt, Liberalism in the Bedroom: Quarreling Spouses in Nineteenth-Century Lima (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 276-84;
56. Teresa González de Fanning, "Concerning the Education of Women," in Confronting Change, Challenging Tradition: Women in Latin American History, ed. Gertrude M. Yeager, 38 (Wilmington de: Scholarly Resources, 1994);
57. Leonidas García, Montes de Piedad: Lectura para el pueblo (Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad, 1913), 8-15.
58. Villela, El Monte, 25.
59. See Jordan, Women and Credit; Tebbutt, Making Ends Meet; Ellen Ross, "Survival Networks: Women's Neighborhood Sharing in London before World War One," History Workshop 15 (Spring 1983): 4-27; and Stansell, City of Women.
60. Martha Judith Sánchez Gómez, "Consideraciones teórico-metodológicas en el estudio del trabajo doméstico en México," in Trabajo, poder y sexualidad, ed. Orlandina de Oliveira, 60 (México: El Colegio de México, 1989);
61. Lourdes Benería, "The Mexican Debt Crisis: Restructuring the Economy and the Household," in Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Women's Work, ed. Lourdes Benería and Shelley Feldman, 83-104 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992). It is not simply natural that women do housework, but rather the case that housekeeping has been historically constructed in Mexico as the responsibility of women. In eighteenth-century Europe, 1870s Peru, and 1890s Havana, the majority of domestic servants were men.
62. See Peru, Dirección General de Estadística, Censo general de la Republica de Peru formado en 1876 (Lima: Imp. Del Teatro, 1878);
63. Cuba, Oficina del Censo, Censo de la República de Cuba bajo la Administración Provisional de Los Estados Unidos 1907 (Washington: Oficino [sic] del Censo de los Estados de Unidos, 1908). Multiple studies of domestic service in colonial Africa show housekeeping gendered male.
64. See Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick: Rutgers, 1992);
65. Gertrude Mianda, "Colonialism, Education, and Gender Relations in the Belgian Congo: The Évolué Case," in Women in African Colonial Histories, ed. Jean Allman, Susan Geiger, and Nakanyike Musisi, 144-63 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002);
66. Margaret Strobel, "Gender, Sex and Empire," in Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Empire, ed. Michael Adas, 345-75 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).
67. Beverly Lemire, "Petty Pawns and Informal Lending: Gender and the Transformation of Small-Scale Credit in England, circa 1600-1800," in From Family Firms to Corporate Capitalism: Essays in Business and Industrial History in Honor of Peter Mathias, ed. Kristine Bruland and Patrick O'Brien, 112-38 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). See also Jordan, Women and Credit; Jacobsen, "Women's Work"; and Ross, "Survival Networks."
68. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 30. On female consumption in Mexico
69. see Steven B. Bunker, " 'Consumers of Good Taste': Marketing Modernity in Northern Mexico, 1890-1910," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 12, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 227-69. On masculine consumption tied to status
70. see Victor M. Macías-González, "The Largatijo at The High Life: Masculine Consumption, Race, Nation, and Homosexuality in Porfirian Mexico," in The Famous 41: Sexuality and Social Control in Mexico, 1901, ed. Robert McKee Irwin, Edward J. McCaughan, and Michelle Rocío Nasser, 227-50 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
71. See also Susan Porter Benson, Countercultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986);
72. Erika Diane Rappaport, Shopping for Pleasure: Women in the Making of London's East End (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000);
73. Lisa Tiersten, Marianne in the Market: Envisioning Consumer Society in Fin-de-Siécle France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
74. Amanda Vickery, "Women and the World of Goods: A Lancashire Consumer and Her Possessions, 1751-81," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter, 274-301 (London: Routledge, 1993), 279.
75. Paul Johnson argues that for twentieth-century England, "the role of goods in the budget management of households was a crucial one . . . goods were important because, given the extent of the pawnbroking market, they had the status of near-money." Paul Johnson, "Credit and Thrift and the British Working Class," in The Working Class in Modern British History, ed. Jay Winter, 147-70 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), quote on 157.
76. In addition to works already cited, see Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Las mujeres en la Nueva España (El Colegio de México, 1987);
77. D. S. Chandler, Social Assistance and Bureaucratic Politics: The Montepíos of Colonial Mexico, 1767-1821 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991).
78. Valuable clothing, jewels, and furniture dominated eighteenth-century dowries in Mexico City, with less valuable "ollas, trapos, canastos" (pots, cloth, baskets) no longer mentioned as they had been earlier. Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, "Ajuar doméstico y vida familiar," in El arte y la vida cotidiana, coord. Elena Estrada de Gerlero, 125-37 (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1994).
79. Mallon argues that nineteenth-century Latin America saw "profound social, economic, and political transformations associated with the transition to capitalism." Florencia Mallon, "Introduction," Latin American Perspectives 48 (Winter 1986): 3-17, quote on 3.
80. The term "relations of forces" is from Antonio Gramsci, The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International Publishers, 1957), 164-73;
81. "bundles of relationships" is from William B. Taylor, "Between Global Processes and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History, ed. Olivier Zunz, 140-66 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985);
82. "multiplicity of force relations" is from Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. R. Hurley (Harmondsworth uk: Penguin, 1978), 92. For state power as "a cluster of relations,"
83. see C. Gordon, ed., Michel Foucault: Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1980), 199.
84. On hegemony see Gramsci, The Modern Prince, 153-55, 186-88. On the colonial state
85. see Linda Arnold, Bureaucracy and Bureaucrats in Mexico City, 1742-1835 (Tucson: University of Arizona, 1988); and Chandler, Social Assistance.
86. Phyllis L. Smith, "Contentious Voices Amid the Order: The Opposition Press in Mexico City, 1876-1911," Journalism History 22, no. 4 (1997): 138-45; and Castillo, Antología de la literatura mexicana.
87. Cope, Limits, 7.
88. Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 39;
89. Bourdieu, Distinction and Outline; Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996);
90. Arjun Appadurai, "Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value," The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, ed. Arjun Appadurai, 3-63 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
91. Eric Van Young, "Material Life," in The Countryside in Colonial Latin America, ed. Louisa Schell Hobermann and Susan Migden Socolow, 49-74 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 52.
92. Douglas and Isherwood, World of Goods, 112, 118. See also Appadurai, Social Life of Things, 15.
93. Jorge Silva Riquer, "Precios y mercancías menudas en las pulperías de la ciudad de México, 1784-1794," in Cincuenta años de historia de México: En el cincuentenario del Centro de Estudios Historicos, vol. 1, coord. Alicia Hernández Chávez and Manuel Miño Grijalva, 407 (México: El Colegio de México, 1991).
94. On honor in Mexico see Stern, Secret History, 13-16, 301-2;
95. Martin, Governance and Society, 123-83;
96. Arrom, Women; and Robert McCaa, "Calidad, Class and Marriage in Colonial Mexico: The Case of Parral, 1778-1790," Hispanic American Historical Review 64, no. 3 (August 1984): 477-501. For Latin American colonial settings
97. see Twinam, Public Lives; Martínez-Adlier, Marriage, Class and Colour; Susan M. Socolow, "Women and Crime: Buenos Aires, 1757-97," Journal of Latin American Studies 12, no. 1 (May 1980): 39-45;
98. Johnson and Lipsett-Rivera, Faces of Honor, which includes three articles on Mexico. For the relationship of honor to patriarchy and liberalism, see Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens.
99. J. A. P., "Dolores del parto" (México: Oficina de D. J. M. Benavente y Socios, 1820), 2.
100. For the institutional history of the Monte de Piedad, see Couturier, "Philanthropic Activities"; Edith Boorstein Couturier, The Silver King: The Remarkable Life of the Count of Regla in Colonial Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), 128, 130, 137, 143-47; Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia del Nacional Monte de Piedad;
101. Marie Francois, "When Pawnshops Talk: Popular Credit and Material Culture in Mexico City, 1775-1916" (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 1998), chap. 3. For discussion of the Monte de Piedad as part of a safety net that mitigated urban unrest
102. see Michael Scardaville, "(Habsburg) Law and (Bourbon) Order: State Authority, Popular Unrest, and the Criminal Justice System in Bourbon Mexico City," The Americas 50, no. 4 (April 1994): 501-25. While this argument would have more weight if the colonial Monte de Piedad catered to the poor, which it did not (though the corner stores did), one might consider the extent to which dissatisfaction with colonial governance among middle groups and even elites was mitigated by privileged access to inexpensive collateral credit.
103. AHNMP, Libros de Empeños, 1802.
104. Bernard E. Bobb, The Viceregency of Antonio María Bucareli in New Spain, 1771-1779 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1962), 14-15;
105. Virginia Guedea, "Ignacio Adalid, un equilibrista novohispano," in Patterns of Contention in Mexican History, ed. Jaime Rodríguez O. (Wilmington de: Scholarly Resources, 1992), 77. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 introduced republican government and division of powers to empire and was the model for the Mexican Constitution in 1824.
106. Linda Arnold, "La administración, la adjudicación y la política en la rama judicial en México, 1825 a 1835," in Memoria del IV Congreso de Historia del Derecho Mexicano (1986), coord. Beatriz Bernal (México: unam, 1988), 1:60.
107. For the decline of institutions for seclusion of women, or "casas de recogimientos," and legal distinctions between "decent" and "loose" women, see Arrom, Women, 47 and 55. For patriarchal subjection of women, children, and servants to male household heads and the link between honor and female sexuality, see Martin, Governance and Society, 151-60. See also Lee M. Penyak, "Safe Harbors and Compulsory Custody: Casas de Depósito in Mexico, 1750-1865," Hispanic American Historical Review 79, no. 1 (1999): 83-99.
108. Throughout colonial Latin America the state allowed a few hundred spinster mothers, almost-married mothers, or married women who had children fathered by men other than husbands to legitimize their adult children. Twinam, Public Lives, 70-71. On the pension system for white widows, see Chandler, Social Assistance; Gary M. Miller, "Bourbon Social Engineering: Women and Conditions of Marriage in Eighteenth-Century Venezuela," The Americas 46, no. 3 (1990): 261-90;
109. Ann S. Blum, "Public Welfare and Child Circulation, Mexico City, 1877 to 1925," Journal of Family History 23, no. 3 (July 1998): 240-71.
110. Jorge González Angulo, "Los gremios de artesanos y la estructura urbana," in Ciudad de Mexico: Ensayo de construcción de una historia, ed. A. Moreno Toscano, 30-36 (México: inah, 1978).
111. Ana Lidia García Peña, "El impacto popular de las reformas fiscales borbónicas en la Ciudad de México (1780-1820)," in Marichal and Marino, De colonia a nación, 85-113.
112. See also Marcella M. Litle, "Sales Taxes and Internal Commerce in Bourbon Mexico, 1754-1821," (PhD diss., Duke University, 1985).
113. See Richard Garner, "Price Trends in Eighteenth Century Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 65, no. 2 (1985): 279-326;
114. Enrique Florescano, Precios de maiz y crisis agrícolas en México, 1708-1810: Ensayo sobre el movimiento de los precios y sus consecuencias económicas y sociales (México: El Colegio de México, 1969).
115. Torcuato S. di Tella, National Popular Politics in Early Independent Mexico: 1820-1847 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 6. For examples and analysis of client nicknames, most associated with occupations and a few related to appearance (i.e., "morena") or status (i.e., "Don")
116. see Marie Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías: The Fabric of the Neighborhood Credit Business in Mexico City, 1780s-1830s," Estudios de Historia Novohispana, 20 (1999): 67-110. See appendix 1, table G, for relative worth of pawned goods in corner stores.
117. Official salaries were paid quarterly throughout the year. On the richest Creole families maintaining their status through economic and social strategies, see John K. Kicza, "The Great Families of Mexico: Elite Maintenance and Business Practices in Late Colonial Mexico City," Hispanic American Historical Review 62, no. 3 (1982): 429-57.
118. Chandler, Social Assistance, 165.
119. Julia Tuñon, ed., El álbum de la mujer: Antología ilustrada de las mexicanas (México: inah, 1991), 3:214.
120. Marie Francois, "Cloth and Silver: Pawning and Material Life in Mexico City at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century," The Americas 60, no. 3 (January 2004): 325-62.
121. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, Don Catrín de la Fachenda y Noches tristes y día alegre (1832l; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1978), 87.
122. Rebecca Haidt, "A Well-Dressed Woman Who Will Not Work: Petimetras, Economics, and Eighteenth-Century Fashion Plates," Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 28, no. 1 (Autumn 2003): 137-57
123. "Luxury, Consumption and Desire: Theorizing the Petimetra," Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies 3 (1999): 33-50. On this antifashion discourse in New Spain
124. see Jean Franco, "Women, Fashion and the Moralists in Early Nineteenth-Century Mexico," in Homenaje a Ana María Barenechea, ed. Lía Schwartz Lerner and Isaías Lerner, 421-30 (Madrid: Editorial Castalia, 1984).
125. Torcuato S. di Tella, "The Dangerous Classes in Early Nineteenth Century Mexico," Journal of Latin American Studies 5, no. 1 (1973): 79-105.
126. Scardaville, "Crime and the Urban Poor," 71.
127. The distinction in welfare policy between deserving and undeserving poor is persistent. See Arrom, Containing the Poor; and Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, "Charity, Rights, and Entitlement: Gender, Labor, and Welfare in Early Twentieth-Century Chile," Hispanic American Historical Review 81, no. 2-4 (2001): 555-86. On drinking vices
128. See William Taylor, Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979);
129. John E. Kicza, "The Pulque Trade of Late Colonial Mexico," The Americas 37, no. 2 (1980): 193-221;
130. Michael C. Scardaville, "Alcohol Abuse and Tavern Reform in Late Colonial Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 60, no. 4 (1980): 643-71.
131. Quote from Martin, "La desnudez," 262;
132. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 131;
133. Scardaville, "Crime and the Urban Poor," 157.
134. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, El periquillo sarniento (1816; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1987), 198, 201, 214, 236, 276, 278, 282, 291, 297.
135. Stern, Secret History, 255-56;
136. Anne Staples, "Policia y Buen Gobierno: Municipal Efforts to Regulate Public Behavior, 1821-1857," in Beezley, Martin, and French, Rituals of Rule, 116. Twinam notes that especially in Mexico, "unmarried women formed significant social groupings within colonial cities," including elite women who were secretly mothers, widows, and nonelites. Twinam, Public Lives, 81.
137. Quoted in Arrom, Women, 139.
138. Quoted in Arrom, Women, 201, see also 55, 185-86;
139. John E. Kizca, "La mujer y la vida comercial en la ciudad de México a finales de la colonia," A "Analisis Histórico y Sociedad Mexicana) Revista de la División de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades uam-a 2 (1981): 39-59. On the vagaries of widowhood
140. see Robert McCaa, "La viuda viva del México Borbónico: Sus voces, variedades y vejaciones," in Familias novohispanas: Siglos XVI al XIX, ed. Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, 299-324 (México: El Colegio de México, 1991).
141. Arrom, Women, 161.
142. Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Las mujeres, 125.
143. Kicza, "La mujer," 44-45, 55-57;
144. Arrom, Women, 168-71, 174, 176.
145. Miller, "Bourbon Social Engineering," 287-88.
146. See Laura Fair, "Dressing Up: Clothing, Class and Gender in Post-Abolition Zanzibar," Journal of African History 39, no. 1 (1998): 63-94.
147. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 134.
148. Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, "Clothes in Late-Colonial Mexico: A Most Anxious Topic," paper presented to Rocky Mountain Council on Latin American Studies, Santa Fe, February 1996, 13.
149. Quotes from Gonzalbo Aizpuru, "Ajuar doméstico," 128-29, 135;
150. see also Tuñon, El album, 3:30-31, 136. In her study of probate inventories, Lorna Weatherill argues that for eighteenth-century England, "women were traditionally responsible for the household linen, and it is recorded more often in their inventories." Weatherill, "Meaning," 211.
151. Silva Riquer, "Precios y mercancías," 410-12.
152. Tuñon, El album, 3:135.
153. Observers noted a similar high level of material consumption, especially extravagant clothing styles, in Lima in the eighteenth century. Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, Voyage to South America (London: L. Davis and C. Reymers, 1758), 2:54-65. Another way to interpret this evidence, though there is little to directly support it, is that people used collateral goods to fund social climbing through the use of attire and accessories commensurate with the next level.
154. Arrom, Women, 199-201.
155. J. A. P., "Dolores del parto," 2. Pamphlet literature proliferated in 1820, when the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which called for a free press, was reinstated.
156. "Ordenanzas de tenderos, 1757," in Ordenanzas de gremios de la Nueva España, comp. Francisco del Barrio Lorenzot (México: n.p., 1920); Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs, 51-55; "Decreto de 16 de Octubre de 1824," in Rodríguez, Pandectas, 2:366. After independence, governance in the city was complicated by overlapping jurisdictions created with the Federal District in 1824. See Rodríguez Kuri, "Política e institucionalidad: El ayuntamiento de México y la evolución del conflicto jurisdiccional, 1808-1850," in Hernández Franyuti, La Ciudad, 2:51-94;
157. Jorge Silva Riquer, "El abasto al mercado urbano de la Ciudad de México, 1830-1860," in Hernández Franyuti, La Ciudad, 1:68. Suffrage became increasingly limited in the 1830s as politicians played on class fears. See Warren, Vagrants and Citizens, 87-120.
158. AGN, Bandos, vol. 11, exp. 101, f. 297; agn, Bandos, vol. 15, exp. 58, f. 162. For examples of broker noncompliance, see Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," 74-75.
159. "Ordenanzas de tenderos," 1790. Tlacos were often made of wood or soap.
160. A. S., "Defensa de los tenderos," 4-5. See also Beverly Lemire, "The Theft of Clothes and Popular Consumerism in Early Modern England," Journal of Social History 24, no. 2 (1990): 255-75.
161. Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs, 3-4.
162. A. S., "Defensa de tenderos," 7.
163. On ownership of multiple businesses and the prevalence of administrators in colonial Mexico City, see Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs, 103, 223. See also Kinsbruner, Petty Capitalism, 59-60. For discussion of Antonio Mariano Maldonado, a multiple shop owner with a variety of administrator arrangements
164. see Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," 91-93.
165. Kinsbruner, Petty Capitalism, 28-29;
166. Lugar, "Merchants," 55.
167. Will Fowler, Tornel and Santa Anna: The Writer and the Caudillo, Mexico, 1795-1853 (Westport ct: Greenwood Press, 2000), 6; see also Florescano, Precios de maiz.
168. Fowler, Tornel and Santa Anna, 7.
169. Archer, "What Goes Around," 267-80.
170. J. A. P., "Dolores del parto," 2.
171. David M. Quinlan, "Issues and Factions in the Constituent Congress, 1823-1824," in Rodríguez, Patterns of Contention in Mexican History, 196. For discussion of capitulados
172. see Archer, "What Goes Around," 271, 276.
173. It is unclear from available documentation whether the expelled included pulperos and pawnbrokers. An 1827 bill to expel Spaniards excluded those peninsulares who had loaned cash to the government. Tenenbaum, "They Went Thataway," 192;
174. Harold Dana Sims, The Expulsion of Mexico's Spaniards, 1821-1836 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990);
175. Romeo Flores Caballero, Counterrevolution: The Role of the Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804-1838, trans. Jaime E. Rodríquez O. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974), 110.
176. Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," 96-98.
177. For examples, see Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," 99.
178. Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," 100.
179. Juan A. Martínez de la Fe, Cajas de ahorros y Montes de Piedad (Provincia de las Palmas) (Sevilla: Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 1980), 8-11;
180. López Yepes, Historia de los Montes, 1:4-6.
181. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 237-38.
182. Rubio, El Nacional, 9.
183. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 231, 233;
184. Rubio, El Nacional, 15.
185. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 239-40.
186. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 248, 255.
187. For figures for the first forty years, see agn, Montepíos, vol. 7, exp. 14, f. 272. See also Francois, "Cloth and Silver," 337.
188. Warren, Vagrants and Citizens; Costeloe, Central Republic, 33-45.
189. Costeloe, Central Republic, 218.
190. Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, Guía de forasteros y repertorio de conocimientos útiles (México: Imprenta de I. Cumplido, 1852), population chart inset following p. 524.
191. About 4 percent of households were upper class in 1811, 18 percent middle class (gente decente with one or two servants), and the remaining 88 percent lower class. Arrom, Women, 5-7;
192. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 373-76.
193. See also Warren, Vagrants and Citizens, 11.
194. Costeloe, Central Republic, 19. For a study of the gendered nature of "keeping up appearances" in early twentieth-century Brazil, see Owensby, Intimate Ironies.
195. Stevens, Origins of Instability, 101-2. Stevens's main concern in chapter seven is to show that living conditions of the political elite (whether conservative, moderate, or radical) shaped their ideological positions.
196. See Costeloe, Central Republic, 33-35, for the radical program, and 109-10, for the Siete Leyes.
197. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 62. This situation lasted for twelve years.
198. For the 1839 and 1840 events in the city, see Costeloe, Central Republic, 162, 177-79; for the decree calling for resumption of business, see agn, Gobernación, no section, caja 244, exp. 18(3), fs. 2; for 1841 currency protests, see Costeloe, Central Republic, 191.
199. Arrom, Women, 165;
200. Piccato, City of Suspects, 153-55.
201. Costeloe, Central Republic, 132-33, 163, 204, 223-24, 236, 244-46. Government agents confiscated goods of middle-class residents who refused to pay taxes.
202. Costeloe, Central Republic, 82, 129, 133, 244;
203. Tenenbaum, "They Went Thataway," 195;
204. María Dolores Morales, "Estructura urbana y distribución de la propiedad de la ciudad de México en 1813," in Moreno Toscano, Ciudad de México, 79.
205. Edith Couturier suggests that "women became property owners in far greater numbers in the nineteenth century" based on notarial records from 1800 to 1878. Edith Couturier, "Women and the Family in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: Law and Practice," Journal of Family History 10, no. 3 (1985): 294-304, quote on 303.
206. The colonial system that controlled New Spain consisted of corporate groups of nobility, clergy, military, and Indians, with internal hierarchies in terms of power, rights, and functions. The nuclear family was the building block for this corporate structure, "with men governing their wives and children just as they were in turn governed by the state." Silvia Arrom, "Changes in Mexican Family Law in the XIXth Century: The Civil Codes of 1870 and 1884," Journal of Family History 10 (Fall 1985): 309-22.
207. Quinlan, "Issues and Factions," 204.
208. For the failure of promised schools to materialize, see Muñoz de Alba, "La condición jurídica," 811-12;
209. Arrom, Women, 201. For discussions of republican gender ideologies and legal status in Mexico
210. see Muñoz de Alba, "La condición jurídica," 811-22;
211. Arrom, Women, 82-97. For other areas of Latin America
212. see Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens;
213. Hunefeldt, Liberalism in the Bedroom;
214. Elizabeth Dore, "One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: Gender and the State in the Long Nineteenth Century," in Hidden Histories of Gender and the State in Latin America, ed. Elizabeth Dore and Maxine Molyneaux, 3-32 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000).
215. Kuznesof, "Gender Ideology," 161-65;
216. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 38;
217. Arrom, Women, 120, 132, 166, 186, 197.
218. Arrom, "Changes in Mexican Family Law," 308; see also 208, 310.
219. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 208.
220. Waddy Thompson, Recollection of Mexico (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1846), 129-30;
221. see also Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, "Clothes in Late-Colonial Mexico," 20. Prieto also commented on working women adorned with elaborate jewelry, such as the enchilada vendor who stationed herself in front of a church wearing "necklaces and relicarios (religious lockets), silver rings on her hands and earrings with calabacillas de corales [little gourds of coral]." Jewelry such as this often found its way to the pawnshop shelves. Guillermo Prieto, Memorias de mis tiempos (1848; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1996), 149.
222. Costeloe, Central Republic, 24-25. On the discourse of vagrancy see Arrom, Containing the Poor; and Warren, Vagrants and Citizens.
223. Salazar, "Los sirvientes domésticos," 125, 131;
224. Arrom, Women, 198-200;
225. Baltasar Dromundo, La metrópoli mexicana (México: Baltasar Dromundo, 1957), 80-81. See the illustration of the recamarera, or chambermaid, in Juan de Arias et al., Los mexicanos pintados por sí mismos: Tipos y costumbres nacionales por varios autores (1854; facsimile, México: Centro de Estudios de Historia de México condumex, 1989), 100, quote on 232;
226. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 147.
227. Arrom, Women, 164.
228. Richard Warren found these smaller downstairs quarters of rooming houses rented for between two and five pesos a month, which represented most of or even more than a working-class salary. Even more humble jacales, or huts, rented for one to three pesos a month. Warren, Vagrants and Citizens, 50; Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 148.
229. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 138.
230. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 101;
231. Prieto, Memorias, 242.
232. Fernández de Lizardi, Noches triste y dia alegre, 207.
233. Vicente Riva Palacio, Calvario y Tabor (1868; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1985), first quote on 222, second quote on 194.
234. Arias, Los mexicanos, 94, 178, 234.
235. Quote from Prieto, Memorias, 118-19;
236. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 132.
237. Manuel Rivera Cambas, México pintoresco artístico y monumental (México: Editora Nacional, 1880), 177;
238. AHCM, Tacubaya, inventory 120, exp. 11;
239. AHCM, Tlalpan, inventory 69, exp. 71.
240. Almonte, Guía de forasteros, 458-59.
241. See chapter 5 for a statistical analysis of middle-class professions in 1895. See also Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 422, 472;
242. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 373. For the middle class in other Latin American settings in the early twentieth century, see Parker, Idea, and Owensby, Intimate Ironies.
243. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 145;
244. Warren, Vagrants and Citizens, 50;
245. Stevens, Origins of Instability, 99-101.
246. El Siglo XIX, April 30, 1845, cited by Costeloe, Central Republic, 21; José Benítez, El traje y el adorno en México, 1500-1910 (Guadalajara, 1946), 162;
247. Arias, Los mexicanos, 57.
248. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez and Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Guía de protocolos: Archivo General de Notarías de la Ciudad de México, año de 1855 (México: El Colegio de México, 2000), 369. See also Couturier, "Women and the Family."
249. Vázquez and Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Guía de protocolos, 1855, 307.
250. Costeloe, Central Republic, 20.
251. "Tarifa de precios a los coches del sitio," in Luis G. Saldivar, Diccionario de la legislación mexicana (México: Imprenta de "La Constitución Social," 1868), 149.
252. Meyer Cosío, "La ciudad," 55.
253. See also Silvia Arrom, "Popular Politics in Mexico City: The Parián Riot, 1828," Hispanic American Historical Review 68 (1988): 245-67;
254. María del Carmen Ruiz Castañeda, La ciudad de México en el siglo XIX (México: Departamento del Distrito Federal, 1974), 59;
255. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 10-11.
256. Manuel Carrera Stampa, "La ciudad de Mexico a principios del siglo XIX," in Planos de la Ciudad de México (México: Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, 1949), 308-18, quote on 315; Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Las mujeres, 266.
257. Quote from Marcos Arroníz, Manual del viajero en México (Paris: Librería de Rosa y Bouret, 1858), 42;
258. Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 10.
259. Carlos Illades, "Composición de la fuerza de trabajo y de las unidades productivas en la ciudad de México, 1788-1873," in Hernández Franyuti, La Ciudad, 2:259-60;
260. Frances Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico (1843; repr., London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1954), 65.
261. William Bullock, Seis meses de residencia y viajes en México (México: Banco de México, 1983), 136;
262. Prieto, Memorias, 118. The 1850 description is from Shaw, "Poverty and Politics," 130.
263. Edith O'Shaughnessy, Intimate Pages of Mexican History (New York: George H. Doran, 1920), 56.
264. Arias, Los mexicanos, 229-30.
265. Villela, El Monte, 26.
266. Prieto, Memorias, 126;
267. Benítez, El traje, 176.
268. Prieto, Memorias, 65.
269. Arias, Los mexicanos, 241. For comparative discussion of the transformation of household linens and clothing into successive articles and garments
270. see Vickery, "Women and the World of Goods," 282.
271. Arrom, Women, 165.
272. Emma Cosío Villegas, "La vida cotidiana," in Historia moderna de México: La Republica Restaurada; La vida social, ed. Luis González y González, Emma Cosío Villegas, and Guadalupe Monroy, 463 (México: Hermes, 1955).
273. Prieto, Memorias, 20-25, 66, 183, 202, 302-3;
274. Arias, Los mexicanos, 234.
275. Arias, Los mexicanos, 91.
276. Arias, Los mexicanos, 230. For the mestizaje of cuisine, see Pilcher, ¡Que vivan los tamales!
277. Prieto, Memorias, 183, 302. For discussion of material goods as projecting status in Peru, see Jaimeson, "Doña Julia and Her Two Houses," 157-58. For England
278. see Vickery, "Women and the World of Goods." For New York
279. see Wall, "Family Meals," 110-14. For description of poor homes
280. see Arias, Los mexicanos, 231.
281. Prieto, Memorias, 54.
282. "Orden de la Secretaría de Estado, 6 de diciembre de 1868," Saldivar, Diccionario, 510; ahcm, Inventario General de la Municipalidad de Tlalpan, inv. 69, exp. 71, March 1879.
283. AGNCM, Antonio Pintos, vol. 3544, f. 164.
284. Arias, Los mexicanos, 100.
285. Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico, 139-40;
286. Benítez, El traje, 183.
287. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 73.
288. Hale, Mexican Liberalism, 249-57.
289. Arrom, Containing the Poor, 178, 187, 193, 205-7, 214, 220-21, 226-27, 240-41.
290. Almonte, Guía de forasteros, 307-13, 329-30.
291. See Francois, "Prendas and Pulperías," for analysis of business patterns in retail pawning in the Bourbon era.
292. Costeloe, Central Republic, 13, 16;
293. see also Rosa María Meyer Cosio, "Empresarios españoles después de la independencia," in El poder y el dinero: Grupos y regiones mexicanos en El Siglo XIX, coord. Beatriz Rojas, 218-25 (Mexico: Instituto Mora, 1994).
294. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez and Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, eds., Guía de protocolos: Archivo General de Notarías de la Ciudad de México; Año de 1841 (México: El Colegio de México, 1989), 230-31; ahcm, Empeños, exp. 37; El Siglo XIX, January 24, 1855; agncm, Calapiz, v. 1053, f. 58v; Galvan Rivera, Guía de forasteros, 332; agn, Gobernación, vol. 2167(1), exp. 2, no. 2(1), fs. 5-7; and Pérez, Almanaque estadístico, 241.
295. Josefina Zoraida Vázquez and Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, eds., Guía de protocolos: Archivo General de Notarías de la Ciudad de México; Año de 1850 (México: El Colegio de México, 1996), 271;
296. Galvan Rivera, Guía de forasteros, 330.
297. For pawnbroker characterization of clientele and their self-characterization as social workers, see chapter 3. The widow language is from agn, Gobernación, leg. 2187(1), exp. 2 no. 8, fs. 3-3v. Luther N. Steward Jr., "Spanish Journalism in Mexico, 1867-1879," Hispanic American Historical Review 45, no. 3 (1965): 422-33.
298. Hale, Mexican Liberalism, 95-98, 176-79, 249-51, 298-303. For discussion of leading ideologues and major tenets of economic liberalism
299. see Moisés González Navarro, La pobreza en México (México: El Colegio de México, 1985), 39-42.
300. Bancroft Library, University of California-Berkeley, "Reglamento de las casas de empeños," July 22, 1871, manuscript, fs. 3-14. The complaint about receiving stolen goods is in Article 12.
301. Diario Oficial, December 4, 1867, 1.
302. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 243-44, 246, 250-55;
303. Rubio, El Nacional, 19. The Italian Montis di Pietá were also expected to lend to governments in times of extraordinary need.
304. See Pullan, Rich and Poor, 604-6.
305. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 259, 261, 265.
306. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 55.
307. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 255-57.
308. Diario del Imperio, July 10, 1866, p. 1.
309. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 70.
310. Arrom, Containing the Poor, 228.
311. Diario del Imperio, October 30, 1866, 2.
312. Villamil, El Monte, 145, 150.
313. Jaime E. Rodríguez O., "Introduction," in Rodríguez, Patterns of Contention, 2-5.
314. John Tutino, "Agrarian Social Change and Peasant Rebellion in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: The Example of Chalco," in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico, ed. Friedrich Katz, 95-140 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
315. Fanny Gooch Chambers, Face to Face with the Mexicans, 1887, ed. and with an introduction by C. Harvey Gardiner (Carbondale il: Southern Illinois University Press, 1966), 84.
316. Julio Sesto, El México de Porfirio Díaz: Estudios sobre el desenvolvimiento general de la República Mexicana despues de diez años de permanencia en ella; Observaciones hechas en el terreno oficial y en el particular (Valencia: F. Sempere, 1909), 210.
317. Carmen Diana Deere and Magdalena León, Empowering Women: Land and Property Rights in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 57.
318. Tercer censo de 1910, 2:390.
319. Deere and León, Empowering Women, 58.
320. For gendered positivism see Carmen Ramos, "Mujeres trabajadores en el México porfiriano: Género e ideología del trabajo femenino, 1876-1911," Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe 48 (June 1990): 27-44, and "Señoritas porfirianas: Mujeres y ideología en el México Progresista, 1880-1910," in Presencia y transparencia: La mujer en la historia de México (México: El Colegio de México, 1987), 143-61;
321. Verena Radkau, "Por la debilidad de nuestro ser": Mujeres del pueblo en la paz porfiriana (México: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, 1989);
322. Susana Vidales, "Ni madres abnegadas, ni Adelitas," Criticas de la Economia Política 14/15 (April-June 1980): 241-81. On gendered discourses in Mexico
323. see Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
324. Margaret Towner, "Monopoly Capitalism and Women's Work during the Porfiriato," Latin American Perspectives 4, nos. 1-2 (1977): 90-105, quote on 97;
325. Horacio Barreda, El siglo XIX ante el femenismo: Una interpretación positivista (1909; repr., México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1991);
326. L. Josefina Reyes, La mujer en el hogar y en la sociedad (Puebla, 1903);
327. M. A. Sanz, La mujer mexicana en el santuario del hogar (México, 1907).
328. Lanny Thompson, "Artisans, Marginals, and Proletarians: The Households of the Popular Classes in Mexico City, 1876-1950," in Five Centuries of Mexican History, ed. Virginia Guedea and Jaime E. Rodríguez O., 310 (México and Irvine: Instituto Mora / University of California, 1992). This was true at the beginning of the century as well. Silvia Arrom found in the 1811 census that "the most employed group [of women] were also the most married." Arrom, Women, 202.
329. Muñoz de Alba, "La condición jurídica," 814-15. For discussion of women's role in the Porfirian education project
330. see Mary Kay Vaughan, "Women, Class and Education in Mexico, 1880-1910," Latin American Perspectives 12/13 (1977): 135-52.
331. Carmen Romero Rubio, the president's wife, founded the Casa Amiga de la Obrera, a day-care center for working mothers, with other women establishing and running institutions aiding poor women and children, including shelters, orphanages, and mothers' clubs. Ann S. Blum, "Conspicuous Benevolence: Liberalism, Public Welfare, and Private Charity in Porfirian Mexico City, 1877-1910," The Americas 58, no. 1 (2001): 7-38, quote on 20-22.
332. Gutierrez Najera, "La historia de un peso falso," 297.
333. Thompson, "Artisans, Marginals, and Proletarians," 316.
334. For the Federal District the industrial sector increased from just over three thousand in 1895 to almost fourteen thousand in 1910 (compare appendix 3, table K, with appendix 3, table L). On the industrializing city see Rodney Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Workers, 1906-1911 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976), 59;
335. Dawn Keremetsis, "Development of the Cotton Textile Industry in Nineteenth Century Mexico" (PhD diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1971);
336. Gayón Córdova, Condiciones de vida, 96.
337. Almost half of the households in Thompson's sample were composed of two or more earners, even though the average household was only 3.6 members. Thompson, "Artisans, Marginals, and Proletarians," 308-10
338. "Households," 72-73.
339. Gutierrez Najera, "La historia de un peso falso," 300-302.
340. First quote from María García Castillo, "La sociedad porfiriana: Una lectura de Los parientes ricos, de Rafael Delgado," Historias 38 (1997): 89; second quote from El Monitor Republicano, November 12, 1886.
341. "Fiesta de aniversario: El Centro Nacional de Empleados de Comercio, velado en el Renacimiento," El Imparcial, June 12, 1906, 2. On the rise of the Mexican "bourgeoisie" in this period
342. see Moisés González Navarro, "El Porfiriato: La vida social," in Historia moderna de México, ed. Daniel Cosío Villegas, 387-93 (México: Editorial Hermes, 1970).
343. Molina Enríquez, cited in Sancho Riba, "Las condiciones económicas," 11, 17.
344. Rafael Delgado, Los parientes ricos (1903; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1974).
345. See also García Castillo, "La sociedad," 83-91.
346. Rafael Delgado, Angelina (1893; repr., México: Editorial Porrúa, 1964), 77.
347. Delgado, Angelina, 174.
348. Gooch Chambers, Face to Face, 86.
349. Meyer and Sherman, Course, 472.
350. See Sancho Riba, "Las condiciones económicas," 16, for statistical tables.
351. Motts, La vida, 48.
352. Delgado, Angelina, 176.
353. Sancho Riba, "Las condiciones económicas," 12-14.
354. Blum, "Conspicuous Benevolence," 22.
355. Thompson, "Households," 130.
356. Porter, "And That It Is Custom," 111-48.
357. Porter, "And That It Is Custom," 139.
358. Manuel Payno, Bandidos del Río Frio (México: Ediciones México Moderno, 1919), 60-72, 77, 93, 97.
359. Angel del Campo, Cosas vistas y cartones, 3rd ed. (México: Editorial Porrúa, 1974), 107.
360. Del Campo, Cosas vistas, 121-29.
361. El Monitor Republicano, November 27, 1866, 1.
362. Frederick A. Ober, Travels in Mexico and Life among the Mexicans (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1884), 252, 283;
363. Tweedie, Mexico, 203, 223.
364. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 252;
365. Del Campo, Cosas vistas, 157-58.
366. Quoted in Gayón Córdova, Condiciones de vida, 57. For a similar characterization of clientele
367. see AHCM, Gobierno del Distrito, Empeños, vol. 1429, exp. 382.
368. El Siglo XIX, January 16, 1885.
369. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 251.
370. El Monitor Republicano, January 22, 1887, 3.
371. Villela, El Monte, 25.
372. Payno, Bandidos, 33. Might "showing a friend" be the Mexican equivalent of the American "going to see Uncle"?
373. Quoted in Jonathan Kandell, La Capital: The Biography of Mexico City (New York: Random House, 1988), 384.
374. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 251. It could be that "gods" should read "goods," but the published work says "gods."
375. Gooch Chambers, Face to Face, 96, 106-7.
376. Julio Guerrero, La génesis del crimen en México (Paris: Viuda de Ch. Bouret, 1901), 162. On the department stores
377. see Meyer Cosío, "La ciudad," 59-60;
378. Bernardo García Díaz, Un pueblo fabril del Porfiriato: Santa Rosa, Veracruz (México: Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1981), 16-19;
379. Buchenau, Tools of Progress, 51-54.
380. Quote from Porter, "And That It Is Custom," 125;
381. AHCM, Gobierno del Distrito, Empeños, vol. 1422, exp. 5, f. 17; and exp. 38.
382. Tweedie, Mexico, 145-50.
383. La Mujer Mexicana, entrega 18 (1905), 142.
384. Gooch Chambers, Face to Face, 107.
385. Tweedie, Mexico, 151.
386. Tello Peón, "Intención decorativa," 140. Photographs of chandeliers and lighting fixtures appear on 140, 143, 150-51; on quinquines
387. see Delgado, Angelina, 121. Motts says that quinquines were used by "the comfortable classes" in the early twentieth century, while poorer homes used candles or cheaper oil lamps.
388. Gooch Chambers, Face to Face, 107;
389. Tweedie, Mexico, 208.
390. Gutierrez Najera, "La historia de un peso falso," 301;
391. Delgado, Angelina, 29, 31, 75-76, 132.
392. Delgado, Angelina, 39-40.
393. Tweedie, Mexico, 196. Motts mentions La Moda Elegante and El Hogar, edited by Obdulia Enríquez de Rivera. I have translated "tejidos con gancho o con agujas" as crochet and knitting. Motts, La vida, 44.
394. The poem is unattributed. "La Aguja," in La Mujer Mexicana, entrega 9 (1902), 73-74;
395. Mariano de Jesús Torres, "Manualito de La Costurera," in La Mujer Mexicana, entrega 18 (1905), 148-49.
396. Sesto, El México de Porfirio Díaz, 136, 210;
397. "Estuafas en los empeños," El Imparcial, August 1, 1904, 6.
398. Arias, Los mexicanos, 54.
399. See also Fernández de Lizardi, Don Catrín, 207.
400. Tweedie, Mexico, 146. For women wearing mantillas to mass along with Parisian fashions
401. see Ober, Travels in Mexico, 279.
402. Cosío Villegas, "La vida cotidiana," 476.
403. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 280; for examples from Delgado
404. see Angelina, 85, 182; hurricane quote from Delgado, Angelina, 151.
405. Macías-González, "Largatijo at the High Life"; Robert McKee Irwin, Mexican Masculinities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), xxxii.
406. Mariano de Jesús Torres, "La lavandera," in La Mujer Mexicana, entrega 18 (1905), 143-44.
407. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 283. Pawning other people's laundry was also reported by the English press. "Pawning Linen," The Times, July 21, 1847, 6.
408. Tweedie, Mexico, 207.
409. Ober, Travels in Mexico, 251. For discussion of the larger welfare network of asylums, hospitals, and orphanages in the Porfirian era
410. see Blum, "Public Welfare," 252-55.
411. "Los empeñeros y el público," El Partido Liberal, January 6, 1887.
412. For example, see AHCM, Gobierno del Distrito, Empeños, vol. 1429, exp. 385, f. 9.
413. Thomas John McMahon, "The Spanish Immigrant Community in Mexico City during the Porfiriato, 1876-1911" (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 1974), 7, 44-52, 73-77, 88-89, 91-136.
414. McMahon, "Spanish Immigrant Community," 43-44, 157. Quote from "Disposición Necesaria," El Partido Liberal, December 8, 1866, 3.
415. El Monitor Republicano, October 31, 1890, 1.
416. El Centinela, June 26, 1881, 2;
417. El Correo de España, May 2, 1899, 1, cited in McMahon, "Spanish Immigrant Community," 116 and 149 respectively.
418. McMahon, "Spanish Immigrant Community," 150-52.
419. Sesto, El México de Porfirio Díaz, 196.
420. Jorge H. Jimenez Muñoz, La traza de poder: Historia de la política y los negocios urbanos en el Distrito Federal de sus orígenes a la desaparición del Ayuntamiento (1824-1928) (México: Codex, 1993);
421. Johns, City of Mexico, 28-29, 34-38.
422. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 74.
423. El Monitor Republicano, October 31, 1890, 1.
424. González Navarro, La pobreza, 117-18. According to El Siglo XIX, empeñeros charged at least 25 percent interest for a four-month term in 1887, the equivalent of 75 percent annual interest. El Siglo XIX, September 13, 1887, September 14, 1887.
425. El Siglo XIX, September 13, 1887.
426. The council cites "Instituciones de Crédito," by Lic. D. Joaquin D. Casasús. "Dictamen sobre impuestos á casas de empeño," Biblioteca de Mexico, Memorias del Ayuntamiento, 1900, vol. 2, doc. 11;
427. González Navarro, La pobreza, 117-18.
428. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 75-76.
429. Juan de D. Peza, La beneficencia en Mexico (México: Imprenta de Francisco Diaz de Leon, 1881), 184.
430. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 76.
431. El Siglo XIX, January 28, 1885;
432. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 76.
433. El Siglo XIX, January 16, 1885, February 6, 1885, August 10, 1886;
434. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 76.
435. "Venta de Prendas," El hijo del Ahuizote, December 23, 1888, 62.
436. El Monitor Republicano, January 20, 1887, 1.
437. El Monitor Republicano, January 26, 1887, 1; January 28, 1887.
438. "Visita al Monte de Piedad," Diario del Hogar, August 29, 1890.
439. El Monitor Republicano, September 9, 1890, 3.
440. John Robert Lear, "Workers, Vecinos and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City, 1909-1917" (PhD diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1993), 71;
441. Thompson, "Artisans, Marginals, and Proletarians," 308.
442. El Economista Mexicano, July 23, 1904, 370.
443. "La ley de beneficencia privada: Sus buenos efectos," El Imparcial, August 24, 1904, 1.
444. Reproduced in Artemio de Valle Arizpe, "Las loterías del Sacristán," Artes de México 13 (1997): 43.
445. Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 78.
446. El Monitor Republicano, January 12, 1887, 1.
447. El Siglo XIX, November 21, 1886. For discussion of the reforms aimed at markets and vendors
448. see Porter, "And That It Is Custom."
449. El Partido Liberal, January 18, 1887.
450. El Siglo XIX, January 6, 1887.
451. El Siglo XIX, January 13, 1887.
452. El Siglo XIX, January 13, 1887.
453. El Siglo XIX, January 13, 1887.
454. El Siglo XIX, January 15, 1887;
455. El Monitor Republicano, January 14, 1887, 3.
456. El Siglo XIX, January 18, 1887;
457. La Federación and La Convención Radical, cited in El Monitor Republicano, January 25, 1887, 3.
458. El Monitor Republicano, January 28, 1877, 1, September 5, 1890.
459. El Monitor Republicano, October 29, 1890, 1.
460. El Siglo XIX, June 21, 1888. Margaret Chowning notes, however, that the establishment of a Porfirian Monte de Piedad in Michoacán was not successful in stamping out the private pawning sector. Chowning, Wealth and Power, 282.
461. El Siglo XIX, September 13, 1887.
462. William D. Raat, "Ideas and Society in Don Porfirio's Mexico," The Americas 30 (1973): 32-53, quote on 46.
463. "Dictamen sobre impuestos," vol. 2, doc. 11.
464. On the decena trágica, see Michael C. Meyer, Huerta: A Political Portrait (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972), 45-63;
465. Bliss, Compromised Positions, 70-71;
466. Knight, Mexican Revolution, 2:484-90.
467. Wasserman, Everyday Life and Politics, 136.
468. There is a huge literature on the roots and repercussions of the Mexican Revolution. For a review of historiography of the revolution, see Mary Kay Vaughan, "Cultural Approaches to Peasant Politics in the Mexican Revolution," Hispanic American Historical Review 9, no. 2 (1999): 269-305. For revolutionary activity in the city, see Lear, Workers; and Meyer, Huerta. For the policy phase of the revolution in terms of the regulation of sexuality, see Bliss, Compromised Positions.
469. Lear, Workers, 192-214, 361-62.
470. Lear, Workers, 303.
471. "Empeñero acusado por estafa," El Diario, January 29, 1912, 8.
472. Quote from Cabrera Siles and Escandón, Historia, 83-84;
473. Meyer, Huerta, 50-51. For a concise narrative of the events of November 1914
474. see Meyer and Sherman, Course, 518-19.
475. "Reformas al reglamento de empeños," El Imparcial, May 7, 1914, 7;
476. "La reglamentación de las casas de empeños se llevara a cabo," El Demócrata, September 20, 1914, 1.
477. "Los saqueos de Huertistas y Felixistas," 1.
478. Gómez-Galvarriato, "Evolution of Prices," 355.
479. One sector that boomed in this crisis was that of private mortgage lending, which became more expensive when Huerta assessed a 1 percent tax on mortgages operations, passed on to the borrower. Jorge H. Jiménez Muñoz, La traza del poder: Historia de la política y los negocios urbanos en el Distrito Federal (México: codex Editores, 1993), 118-20.
480. Bliss, Compromised Positions, 70-71. For a stark picture of starvation and scavenging
481. see Francisco Ramírez Plancarte, La ciudad de México durante la revolución constitucionalista (México: Ediciones Botas, 1941), 366-67;
482. Knight, Mexican Revolution, 2:317.
483. Illades, Presencia española, 57-58.
484. Richmond, "Confrontation and Reconciliation," 222-23.
485. Alejandra Moreno Toscano, "Del porvenir de los recuerdos," Nexos 86 (1985): 5.
486. "Se evitarán los abusos de los empeñeros," La Convención, April 29, 1915, 1.
487. "Venta de prendas," El Demócrata, August 16, 1915, 4; August 30, 1915, 4.
488. "Reglamento de bazares," El Demócrata, January 28, 1916, 1, 7.
489. "Los empeños," El Pueblo, January 27, 1916.
490. Knight, Mexican Revolution, 2:317;
491. Gómez-Galvarriato, "Evolution of Prices," 355-56, 360-65;
492. Buchenau, Tools of Progress, 76-77.
493. "Comentarios breves: Los empeños y los bazares," El Pueblo, October 13, 1917, 3.
494. "Casas, empeños, Montes de Piedad, bazares, agencias de inhumaciones," El Pueblo, November 19, 1917, 4. For more on the themes of necessary evil, redemption, and revolution in the city
495. see Bliss, Compromised Positions, and "The Science of Redemption: Syphilis, Sexuality and Reformism in Revolutionary Mexico City," Hispanic American Historic Review 79, no. 1 (1999): 1-40.
496. "La vuelta de los empeños," El Demócrata, February 10, 1920.
497. El Pueblo, August 6, 1917, 9.
498. "El Monte de Piedad al descubierto," El Demócrata, April 30, 1920, 4.
499. "Por qué una atormentada teoría," El Demócrata, May 1, 1920, 4.
500. "Por la moralidad de los hogares," El Demócrata, September 28, 1914, 1.
501. Cited in Thompson, "Households," 153.
502. "Inscripciones en la Escuela N. de Enseñanza Doméstica," El Demócrata, May 10, 1916, 5.
503. "Los Criados," El Demócrata, August 2, 1919, 2.
504. "La Casa Amiga de la Obrera," El Pueblo, January 4, 1917, 2. It is not known how many other day-care facilities there were in the city or how many households they served.
505. "Reparto de certificados a las alumnas de la Academia Comercial Nocturna Ignacio M. Altamirano," El Pueblo, January 4, 1917.
506. Elena Poniatowsa, Hasta no verte Jesús Mío. 22nd ed. (México: Era, 1983), 136; Bliss, Compromised Positions; Blum, "Public Welfare."
507. Appadurai, Social Life of Things. On the relationship between furniture and class, see Patricia Vega Jiménez, "From Benches to Sofas: Diversification of Patterns of Consumption in San José (1857-1930)," in Orlove, Allure of the Foreign, 67-92; and Leora Auslander, Taste and Power: Furnishing Modern France (Berkeley: University of California Press).
508. "Por que una atormentada teoria," El Demócrata, May 1, 1920, 1.
509. Motts, La vida, 57.
510. Motts, La vida, 64.
511. Study of the Mexican Revolution constitutes a cottage industry for historians, with works too numerous to cite. For overviews of the vast literature and positions on particular interpretations, see the works cited in chapter 7, note 3, above. See also Keith A. Haynes, "Dependency, Postimperialism, and the Mexican Revolution: An Historiographic Review," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 7, no. 2 (1991): 225-51;
512. Anna Macias, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (Westport ct: Greenwood Press, 1982);
513. Sancho Riba, "Las condiciones económicas";
514. Ramona Falcon, "Los origenes populares de la revolución de 1910: El caso de San Luis Potosí," Historia Mexicana 29, no. 2 (1979): 197-240;
515. Cole Blaiser, "Studies of Social Revolutions: Origins, in Mexico, Bolivia, and Cuba," Latin American Research Review 2, no. 3 (1967): 28-64;
516. Frank Brandenburg, The Making of Modern Mexico (Prentice Hall, 1964).
517. For discussion of female motives in collective actions, see Porter, "And That It Is Custom." See also Temma Kaplan, "Female Consciousness and Collective Action," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 31 (1982): 545-66;
518. Lear, Workers; Sonia E. Alvarez, Engendering Democracy in Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
519. Enriqueta Tuñon, "El otorgamiento del sufragio femenino," Historias 41 (1998): 91-111;
520. Macias, Against All Odds; Elizabeth Salas, Soldaderas in the Mexican Military (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
521. "El Monte de Piedad al descubierto," El Demócrata, April 30, 1920, 4.
522. El Demócrata, July 28, 1920, 5.
523. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
524. Eric Van Young, "The Raw and the Cooked: Elite and Popular Ideology in Mexico, 1800-1821," in Szuchman, Middle Period, 75-102; Cope argues that patron-client relationships were more important than the state in colonial urban daily life. Cope, Limits.
525. See also Susan Deans-Smith, "Culture, Power, and Society in Colonial Mexico," Latin American Research Review 31, no. 1 (1998): 257-77.
526. Literature on popular defiance of social legislation from the late Bourbon era has shown that the popular sectors of society long had their own preferences and agendas in living their daily lives. See the essays in Beezley, Martin, and French, Rituals of Rule. See also Viqueira Alba, Propriety and Permissiveness;
527. Silvia Arrom, "Vagos y mendigos en la legislación mexicana, 1745-1845," in Memoria del IV Congreso de Historia del Derecho Mexicano (México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1986), 1:71-87;
528. Pamela Voekel, "Peeing on the Palace: Bodily Resistance to Bourbon Reforms in Mexico City," Journal of Historical Sociology 5, no. 2 (1992): 183-208;
529. Del dicho al hecho . . . Transgresiones y pautas culturales en la Nueva España (México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1989);
530. González Angulo, "Los gremios," 25-36. In summing up the lessons of this social and cultural history scholarship, Arrom states that "the popular classes contested the state for control of their daily lives, and they often won."
531. Silvia Arrom, "Introduction," in Riots in the Cities: Popular Politics and the Urban Poor in Latin America 1765-1910, ed. Silvia M. Arrom and Servando Ortoll, 9 (Wilmington de: Scholarly Resources, 1996).
532. Emilio García Riera, Historia documental del cine mexicana, 1949-50 (Guadalajara: Universidad de Guadalajara, 1992), 349-50. On post-1940s culture
533. see Gilbert Joseph, Anne Rubenstein, and Eric Zolov, eds. Fragments of a Golden Age: The Politics of Culture in Mexico since 1940 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001);
534. Eric Zolov, Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999);
535. Anne Rubenstein, Bad Language, Naked Ladies, and Other Threats to the Nation: A Political History of Comic Books in Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998).
536. Thompson, "Households," 66, 76-77.
537. Heather L. Williams, Planting Trouble: The Barzón Debtors' Movement in Mexico (San Diego: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, 1996).
538. Julio Moreno, Yankee Don't Go Home! Mexican Nationalism, American Business Culture, and the Shaping of Modern Mexico, 1920-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
539. Raul Daniel García López, delegate of the Employees Union of the National Monte de Piedad, May 1, 1997, interview by Juan Rodríguez Buendía, Mexico City.