Women of color and the reproductive rights movement

Women of Color and the Reproductive Rights Movement

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-225

  Nelson, Jennifer ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84900207340     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (598)

1. Accosta's story comes from Claudia Dreifus, "Sterilizing the Poor," The Progressive 39 (December 1975): 13-19.
2. For more on second wave feminism see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979).
3. Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).
4. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
5. Estelle Freedman, No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women (New York: Ballantine Books, 2002).
6. Brownmiller, Susan. Interview by author. New York, NY. 30 September 1996.
7. Estimates of illegal abortion in the 1960s range from 200,000 to 1.3 million a year. Estimated deaths were from 5,000 to 10,000 a year. See Leslie Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and the Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 76-79.
8. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America (New York: Penguin Books, revised edition, 1990), 420.
9. Carole Joffe, "Portraits of 'Three Physicians of Conscience': Abortion before Legalization in the United States," Journal of the History of Sexuality 2, no.1 (1991): 46-67.
10. Lawrence Lader, Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 21-22.
11. James Mohr, Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 254.
12. Willis, Ellen. Interview by Author. New York, NY. October 1, 1996.
13. Gordon, 332.
14. Dorothy Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts with Babies," in Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000, edited by Rickie Solinger, 132 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
15. Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 76-79.
16. Philip R. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 41-55.
17. Donald T. Critchlow, Intended Consequences: Birth Control, Abortion, and the Federal Government in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 72-81, 142-144.
18. See Jessie M. Rodrique, "The Black Community and the Birth Control Movement," in Passion and Power: Sexuality in History, edited by Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons, 138-156 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), for evidence that African-American women made conscious choices to control their fertility earlier in the twentieth century.
19. "The National Organization for Women Statement of Purpose," in Feminism in Our Time: The Essential Writings, World War II to the Present, edited by Miriam Schneir, 95-102 (New York: Vintage Books, 1994).
20. Reagan, 6-7, 14-15, 44-45, 109, 133.
21. Rickie Solinger, "'A Complete Disaster': Abortion and the Politics of Abortion Committees, 1950-1970," Feminist Studies 19, no.2 (1993): 241-268.
22. Reagan, 173-174, 191, 207-212.
23. Nanette Davis, From Crime to Choice: The Transformation of Abortion in America (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 21-22.
24. Rickie Solinger, The Abortionist: Woman against the Law (New York: Free Press, 1994).
25. Reagan, 193-200.
26. Nancy Howell Lee, The Search for an Abortionist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969).
27. Self-induced abortions were more dangerous than assisted ones; black women's reliance on self-induced abortions contributed to their higher morbidity during abortion. Reagan, 42-44, 137-138.
28. Reagan, 207-212.
29. Mohr, 253-254.
30. Davis, 129-155.
31. Reagan, 216-222.
32. Lawrence Lader, Abortion (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), 12, 148-149.
33. Eva Rubin, Abortion, Politics, and the Courts: Roe v. Wade and Its Aftermath (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 34.
34. Marian Faux, Roe v. Wade: The Untold Story of the Landmark Supreme Court Decision That Made Abortion Legal (New York: New American Library, 1988), 45-50.
35. Lader, Abortion II, 43, 57-58.
36. Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 283.
37. Lader, Abortion II, 12, 26, 45, 93-95. NARAL was founded in 1969 by Lawrence Lader, Ruth P. Smith (former executive director of ASA), and Dr. Lonny Meyers. NARAL became the National Abortion Rights Action League in 1973.
38. For more see David Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of Roe v. Wade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
39. Lader, Abortion II, 175.
40. Reagan, 222-228.
41. Rubin, 42-43.
42. Lader, Abortion II, 1-3, 12-16.
43. James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue: The Birth Control Movement and American Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 1978, 284-288, 377-381.
44. Gordon, 391-401.
45. Critchlow, 50-111, 145-147.
46. Ellen Willis, "Up From Radicalism: A Feminist Journal," US Magazine (October 1969): n.p.
47. Brian Barrett and Lewis Grossberger, "Women Invade Abortion Hearing," New York Newsday, 14 February 1969.
48. Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1980).
49. Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 23-50.
50. In 1965, SNCC ejected whites from the organization, arguing that blacks needed to organize around their own oppression as leaders in the movement. This idea inspired early second wave feminists to begin organizing around women's experiences of sexism in the civil rights and New Left movements. See Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979).
51. Echols, Daring to Be Bad.
52. See Evans, particularly chapters 2, 3, and 4. For brief biographies of individual feminists.
53. Echols, 379-385.
54. For more, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971).
55. Echols, 72-82.
56. Echols, 51-103.
57. At the time Barbara Susan used her mother's name as her surname. She now goes by the name she was born with, Barbara Kaminsky.
58. Echols, 114-120.
59. Ellen Willis, "Women and the Left," Notes From the Second Year: Women's Liberation, 1970, 55-56.
60. Willis, quoted in Echols, 117.
61. Willis, 55-56.
62. Echols, 139-140.
63. Willis, 55.
64. Pat Manardi, "The Politics of Housework," in Voices From Women's Liberation (New York: Signet, 1971), 336-341.
65. Barbara Susan, "About My Consciousness Raising," Woman's World (December 1969): 1-4.
66. Echols, 144-145.
67. Willis, Ellen. Interview by author. New York, NY. 1 October 1996.
68. David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of Row v. Wade (New York: Macmillan, 1998), 60-61.
69. Lucinda Cisler, "Unfinished Business: Birth Control and Women's Liberation," in Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of the Writings of the Women's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan, 245-288 (New York: Random House, 1970).
70. Cisler, 245-288.
71. Leslie Reagan, "Crossing the Border for Abortions: California activists, Mexican Clinics, and the Creation of a Feminist Health Agency," Feminist Studies 26, no. 2 (2000): 326-352.
72. Ellen Willis, "Abortion: Is a Woman a Person?", in Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, edited by Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson, 471-476 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983).
73. The New York abortion law codified the common law to make abortion a crime after quickening or about 20 weeks. The revised statute of 1829 made the killing of any unborn fetus manslaughter, regardless of its gestational age. (N.Y. Rev. Stat. (1829), Pt. IV, ch. 1, tit. 2, & 9.).
74. See Cyril C. Means, Jr., "The Law of New York Concerning Abortion and the Status of the Foetus, 1664-1968: A Case of Cessation of Constitutionality," New York Law Forum 14, no.3 (Fall 1968): 411-515.
75. Lader, Abortion II, 56-60. Assemblyman Anthony Beilenson had introduced a similar abortion reform bill in California in 1961.
76. Abby Goodnough, "His Last Harangue," New York Times, 17 June 1998, B1, B4.
77. Lader, Abortion II, 129-144. In 1970, the New York State legislature passed a slightly altered version of Cook's bill by a margin of one vote, changed in favor of repeal at the last minute by Assemblyman George Michaels of Auburn, making abortion legal in New York.
78. Quoted from Edith Evans Ashbury, "Women Break Up Abortion Hearing," New York Times, 14 February 1969, 42.
79. Cisler, 272.
80. Ellen Willis, "Talk of the Town: Hearing," New Yorker (March 1969): 30.
81. Speakers' list from "Hearing on Possible Changes in the Abortion Law," 13 February 1969, Redstockings Women's Liberation Archives for Action, Gainesville, FL.
82. Ashbury, "Women Break Up Abortion Hearing," 42.
83. Willis, "Talk of the Town: Hearing." 26.
84. Hole and Levine, 296.
85. Ashbury, "Women Break Up Abortion Hearing".
86. Barrett and Grossberger, "Women Invade Abortion Hearing." 27.
87. Lucinda Cisler, "Abortion Law Repeal (sort of): A Warning to Women," in Radical Feminism, edited by Anne Koedt, Ellen Levine, Anita Rapone, 151-64 (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1973).
88. Willis, Ellen. Interview by author. 1 November 1992.
89. Ellen Willis, "Up From Radicalism: A Feminist Journal".
90. "Congress to Unite Women: Report from the New York City Meeting of November 21, 22, 23, 1969," in Koedt et. al., 302-317.
91. Cisler, 153.
92. Willis, "Talk of the Town," 30.
93. Barrett and Grossberger.
94. Redstockings Flyer, "Who Are the Experts?-Women's Liberation Movement," 13 February 1969.
95. The Choices We Made, edited by Angela Bonavoglia (New York: Random House, 1991), 30.
96. Redstockings Abortion Speakout (audiotape), Washington Square Methodist Church, 21 March 1969, Redstockings Women's Liberation Archives.
97. Irene Peslikis, "Moderator Notes for Redstockings Abortion Speakout," 21 March 1969, Redstockings Women's Liberation Archives.
98. Hole and Levine, 296-297.
99. Redstockings Abortion Speakout (audiotape), Redstockings Women's Liberation Archives.
100. Rosalyn Baxandall, Women and Abortion: The Body As Battleground (Westfield, N.J.: Open Press, 1992), 3.
101. Susan Brownmiller, "Redstocking's Rap," Redstockings Women's Liberation Archives.
102. Peslikis, "Moderator Notes for Redstockings Abortion Speakout." 38. Redstockings Abortion Speakout (audiotape).
103. Brownmiller, Susan. Interview by author. New York, NY. 1 October 1996.
104. Willis, "Up from Radicalism," 5.
105. Baxandall, Rosalyn. Interview by author. New York, NY. 22 January 1996.
106. Susan Brownmiller, "Sisterhood Is Powerful," New York Times, 15 March 1970, 27.
107. Willis, "Up From Radicalism," 109.
108. United States v. Vuitch, 305 F.Supp. 1032 (DC 1969).
109. People v. Belous, 71 Cal.2d 954, 458 P.2d 194, 80 Cal.Rptr. 354 (1969).
110. In the early 1970s, WHC changed its name to Health-Pac and led the women's health movement in pressing for greater female patient control over personal health care.
111. See Amy Kesselman, "Women versus Connecticut: Conducting a Statewide Hearing on Abortion," in Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000, edited by Rickie Solinger, 42-68 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
112. Abele v. Markle, 342 F. Supp. 800, 801, n.4 (D. Conn. 1972).
113. Gerald B. Lefcourt, also of the Lawyers Commune, had done much of the original footwork for the case but stepped aside when it became clear that the primary strategy would be to organize on behalf of women.
114. David Bird, "Women and Doctors Sue to Upset Abortion Laws," New York Times, 8 October 1969, 53.
115. "Changing the Abortion Law," New York Times, 10 November 1969, 10.
116. Stearns, Nancy. Interview by author. New York, NY. 3 June 1998.
117. Nancy Stearns, "Roe v. Wade: Our Struggle Continues," Berkeley Women's Law Journal 4 (1988-1989): 1-11.
118. Diane Schulder and Florynce Kennedy, Abortion Rap. New York: McGraw-Hill Book, 1971, xvi.
119. Eva Rubin, Abortion, Politics, and the Courts: Roe v. Wade and Its Aftermath (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982).
120. Stearns, interview, 1998.
121. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
122. Stearns, interview, 1998.
123. Stearns, 5.
124. Stearns, 3-4.
125. For a detailed discussion of the development of Doe v. Bolton and Roe v. Wade, see Marian Faux, Roe v. Wade: The Untold Story of the Landmark Supreme Court Decision That Made Abortion Legal (New York: New American Library, 1988).
126. David Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of Roe v. Wade (New York: Macmillan, 1994).
127. Stearns, interview, 1998.
128. Echols, 167, 219.
129. Mary King, Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (New York: Morrow, 1987), 175-180.
130. Abromowicz v. Lefkowitz, Plaintiffs' Brief, The Center for Constitutional Rights.
131. Stearns, interview, 1998.
132. Weinfeld and Kennedy quoted in Schulder, 93.
133. Edward Ranzal, "U.S. Court to Hear Challenge of State Abortion Laws," New York Times, 6 November 1969, 28.
134. "Abortion Court Named," New York Times, 7 November 1969, 14.
135. Schulder, 5.
136. Schulder, 166, 172, and Plaintiffs' Brief, 3-4.
137. Schulder, 4.
138. Nancy S. Erickson, "Muller v. Oregon Reconsidered: The Origins of a Sex-Based Doctrine of Liberty Contract," Labor History 30 (1989): 241.
139. John W. Johnson, American Legal Culture, 1908-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press: 1981), 29-30.
140. Mark Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 1925-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).
141. Diane Schulder and Florynce Kennedy compare the civil rights movement and women's rights: "The 1970s for women could very well be a replay of the phase of Black people's struggle for civil rights beginning in 1954 with the school desegregation decision (Brown vs. Board of Education)." Schulder, 95.
142. Rubin, 31.
143. Tushnet, 118-119.
144. Schulder, 97. Thomas Ford quoted in Schulder, 100.
145. Stearns, 3.
146. Stearns, interview, 1998.
147. This story is summarized from the deposition transcript, which appears in Schulder, 36-43.
148. Barbara Susan Kaminsky. Interview by author. New York, NY 15 May 1993.
149. Susan wrote for RAT in 1970 after it had been taken over by the women in the organization and began to be published as Women's LibeRATion.
150. Schulder, 33.
151. Garrow, 395.
152. Faux, 35.
153. Brett Harvey, "No More Nice Girls," in Pleasure and Danger, edited by Carole Vance, 204 (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).
154. In 1970, Hawaii was the first state to make abortion legal under most circumstances. Both New York and Alaska reformed their abortion laws in the same year. Soon after these, Washington State legalized abortion by popular referendum. See Laurence H. Tribe, Abortion: The Clash of Absolutes (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 49.
155. Lader, Abortion II, 154-157.
156. Cisler, "Abortion Law Repeal (sort of)," 151-164.
157. Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995).
158. Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," in Women, Health and Reproduction, edited by Helen Roberts, 109-128 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981).
159. Cisler, "Abortion Law Repeal (sort of)," 160.
160. Lader, Abortion II, 149-152.
161. Cisler, "Abortion Law Repeal (sort of)," 151-164.
162. Kathie Sarachild, "The Myth of Abortion Law Repeal," Woman's World 1, no.1 (15 April 1971): 9-10.
163. "Abortion Action," Off Our Backs, 11 April 1970, 13.
164. Untitled article, RAT (7-21 March 1970):13.
165. Echols, 145. Echols makes this argument in her assessment of the "prowoman" line.
166. Peslikis, "Moderator Notes for Redstockings Abortion Speakout." 86. Willis, "Up From Radicalism: A Feminist Journal," n.p.
167. Willis, interview, 1996. In 1972, the Supreme Court ruled in Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972) that all individuals, married and unmarried, had a constitutional right to access to contraceptives.
168. Firestone, 142.
169. Federal Medicaid covered abortion until 1976, so even indigent women, without the means to pay for it, could choose abortion.
170. Hanisch, Carol. E-mail correspondence with author. New Paltz, NY. March 2002.
171. Author's interviews with Ellen Willis, Rosalyn Baxandall, Susan Brownmiller, and Nancy Stearns.
172. This chapter focuses on the reproductive rights views of black women who were vocal about and often active in the women's liberation movement of the early 1970s. Most of these women supported aspects of mainstream feminism, although their agenda diverged in important ways.
173. Ross, Loretta. Interview by author. New York, NY. 1 August 2001.
174. Loretta Ross, "African American Women and Abortion," in Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000, edited by Rickie Solinger, 161-207 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
175. See Jessie Rodrique, "The Black Community and the Birth Control Movement," in Unequal Sisters, edited by Ellen DuBois and Vicki Ruiz, 333-344 (New York: Routledge, 1990), for discussion of African-American support for birth control earlier in the twentieth century.
176. Barbara Omalade, "Hearts of Darkness" in Powers of Desire, edited by Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thomson, 350-370. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983). Omalade discusses some of the reasons black women felt they could not join mainstream (white) feminist efforts.
177. Mary Smith, "Birth Control and the Negro Woman." Ebony (March 1968): 29-36.
178. E. Frances White, "Africa On My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse and African-American Nationalism," Journal of Women's History, 2, no.1 (Spring 1990): 73-97. White discusses the conservative nature of Black Nationalist views on gender relations.
179. Claybourne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 96-119, 149, and 164-166.
180. Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994, 129-133).
181. Testimony by former Panther members suggest that the Panthers on the east coast were more accepting of female leadership and gave women combat roles in the most militant wings of the party. Silvers, Cleo. Interview by author. New York, NY. 27 October 1997.
182. McCreary, Thomas. Interview by author. New York, NY. 14 May 1997.
183. Also see Tracye Matthews, "'No One Ever Asks, What a Man's Place in the Revolution Is': Gender and the Politics of the Black Panther Party, 1966-1971," in The Black Panther Party (Reconsidered), edited by Charles E. Jones, 267-304 (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998).
184. Kay Lindsey, "Poem," in The Black Woman, edited by Toni Cade Bambara, 17 (New York: Signet, 1970).
185. Others in the movement had made the connection between sexism and racism. See Sara Evans in The Personal is Political: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979).
186. M. Rivka Polatnick, "Poor Black Sisters Decided for Themselves: A Case Study of 1960s Women's Liberation Activism," in Sixties Women's Liberation Activism, edited by Kim Marie Vaz, 110-130 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995).
187. M. Rivka Polatnick, "Diversity in Women's Liberation Ideology: How a Black and a White Group of the 1960s Viewed Motherhood," Signs 21, no.3 (Spring 1996): 679-706.
188. see Ula Y. Taylor, "'Negro women are great thinkers as well as doers': Amy Jacques-Garvey and community feminism in the United States, 1924-1927," Journal of Women's History 12, no.2 (Summer 2000): 104-127, for a discussion of the connections between black women's feminist and community activism earlier in the twentieth century.
189. Black Women's Liberation Group, Mount Vernon, New York, "Statement on Birth Control." In Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan, 360-361 (New York: Random House, 1970).
190. Kristen Anderson-Bricker, "'Triple Jeopardy': Black Women and the Growth of Feminist Consciousness in SNCC, 1964-1975," in Still Lifting, Still Climbing: African American Women's Contemporary Activism, edited by Kimberly Springer, 49-69 (New York: New York University Press, 1999).
191. "Puerto Rican Women Sterilized: An Interview with Dr. Helen Rodriguez," Triple Jeopardy 4, no.2 (Jan.-Feb. 1975): 3-4.
192. Ishi Houmah, "Indian Women Sterilized," Triple Jeopardy (Summer 1975): 16.
193. Cellestine Ware, Woman Power (New York: Tower Publications, 1970), 78.
194. Linda La Rue, "The Black Movement and Women's Liberation," in Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, edited by Beverly Guy-Sheftall, 164-173 (New York: The New Press, 1995).
195. Toni Cade Bambara, "The Pill: Genocide or Liberation." In Bambara, ed., 162-169.
196. Population research provides evidence that black women wanted birth control. See Donald Bogue, "Family Planning in the Negro Ghettos of Chicago," Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 48, no.2 (1970): 283-307.
197. Joseph Goldman and Leonard Kogan, "Ghetto Poor Favor Birth Control," Public Welfare and Family Planning 3, no.1 (January 1971): 3.
198. Gerald Lipson and Dianne Wolman, "Polling Americans on Birth Control and Population," Family Planning Perspectives 4, no.1 (January 1972): 39-42.
199. "Third World Sisters," The Militant, 30 July 1971, 21. The Third World Women's Workshop released a pro-abortion/anti-sterilization abuse statement at the national abortion conference and came out against punitive sterilization laws.
200. Philip R. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, 15).
201. Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon Books, 1997), 93.
202. Jack Slater, "Sterilization: Newest Threat to the Poor," Ebony (October 1973): 150.
203. B. Drummond Ayres, "Racism, Ethics and Rights at Issue in Sterilization Case," New York Times, 2 July 1973, 10.
204. B. Drummond Ayres, "Sterilizing the Poor: Exploring Motives and Methods," New York Times, "The Week in Review" 8 July 1973, 4.
205. "Sterilized: Why?" Time: The Weekly News Magazine 102 (23 July 1973) (Laura X, Women's Liberation Archive, Women and Health, Reel #8).
206. Henry Woodhead, "Legal Aid: Sterilization Draws Suit," The Atlanta Constitution, 28 June 1973.
207. Relf v. Weinberger, 372 F. Supp. 1196, 1199 (D.D.C. 1974).
208. Vacated, 565 F.2d 722 (D.C. Cir. 1977).
209. National Welfare Rights Organization v. Caspar W. Weinberger, C. A. No. 74-243, "Plaintiff's Proposed Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law," 2-3.
210. Thomas M. Shapiro, Population Control Politics: Women, Sterilization, and Reproductive Choice (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 90-92. For more detailed background on NWRO.
211. Deborah White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1890-1980 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998).
212. Guida West, The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women (New York: Praeger, 1981).
213. "Sterilization: Coercing Consent," The Nation, 30 March 1974, 388.
214. Reilly, 150-151.
215. Stephen Trombley, The Right To Reproduce (London: George Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1988), 177. In New York, before 1970, 80 percent of abortion deaths were among black and Puerto Rican women.
216. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, revised edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1990, 420.
217. Leslie Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 206-214.
218. Helen Rodriguez-Trias, "Women and the Health Care System: Sterilization Abuse," The Women's Center, Barnard College, 1978 (lecture given at the Women's Center Reid Lectureship, 10-11 November 1976).
219. Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "'Reproductive Choice' in the United States" in And the Poor Get Children, edited by Karen L. Michaelson, 50-88 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981).
220. Petchesky, "'Reproductive Choice.'" 32.
221. Denton Vaughan and Gerald Spearer, "Ethnic Group and Welfare Status of Women Sterilized in Federally Funded Family Planning Programs, 1972," Family Planning Perspectives 6, no.4 (Fall 1974): 224-229.
222. Petchesky, "'Reproductive Choice.'" 34.
223. "Genocide in Mississippi," SNCC Papers, microfilm reel 19, 3-4, Martin Luther King Jr. Library and Archives, Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Atlanta.
224. "Illegitimacy Bill," 21 May 1964, SNCC Papers, box 32.
225. Julius Paul, "The Return of Punitive Sterilization Proposals: Current Attacks on Illegitimacy and the AFDC Program," Law and Society Review 3, no.1 (1968-69): 77-106.
226. Ellen Key Blunt, "Still to Overcome: She Found No Freedom," Washington Post, 27 January 1965, C1.
227. Thomas B. Littlewood, The Politics of Population Control (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977), 74-75.
228. Paul, 78, 90.
229. Chana Kai Lee, For Freedom's Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (Urbana: The University of Illinois Press, 1999), 80-81.
230. Robert G. Weisbord, Genocide? Birth Control and the Black American (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975) 141-146.
231. Damschroder quoted in Cincinnati Post and Times Star, 25 April 1973.
232. Littlewood, 79-80.
233. Letter to Dr. Rosenfeld from Ann Carson, Research Department of NWRO (19 December 1973).
234. "Sterilization: Coercing Consent," The Nation, 30 March 1974, 388, NWRO Papers, Box 2189, Moreland Springarn Research Center, Howard University Library.
235. Program Planning Proposal-Family Planning (Draft)-[Title X funds], Introduction (n.d., 1969?), NWRO Papers, Box 2032.
236. Mrs. Bobby McMahan, Health Committee, National Welfare Rights Organization, Before the Subcommittee on Health, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, U.S. Senate, Thursday, Feb. 19, 1970 [S.2108]-Family Planning and Population Act of 1969 [Senator Tydings, D-Maryland, 1969], NWRO Papers, Box 2050.
237. Doris Bland, "Tell It Like It Is," NOW! National Welfare Leaders Newsletter (NWRO)," 2 February 1968.
238. Elsie Carper, "Mother's Day Parade Open's Drive By Poor," Washington Post, 13 May 1968, 1, 10.
239. "Welfare Women Fight Tenn. Sterilization Bill," Southern Patriot, April 1971, 1.
240. "Sterilizing the poor in Tennessee," Great Speckled Bird, April 1971.
241. "Sterilize welfare mothers?" Guardian, 10 April 1971.
242. Letter to Charles C. Edwards from the Rural Coalition of Mississippi, Jackson Mississippi, 31 August 1973, re: HEW Guidelines for Sterilization of Mentally Incompetents, NWRO Papers, Box 2189.
243. Letter to Dr. Rosenfeld from Ann Carson, Research Department of NWRO, 19 December 1973, NWRO Papers, Box 2189.
244. Littlewood, 109.
245. Ayres, "Sterilizing the Poor." 42.
246. Shapiro, 90-91.
247. Claudia Dreifus, "Sterilizing the Poor," The Progressive 39 (December 1975): 13-19.
248. Bernard Rosenfeld, Sidney Wolfe, and Robert Mc-Garrah, Public Citizen Health Research Group, "Study on Surgical Sterilization: Present Abuses and Proposed Regulations," 29 October 1973.
249. Rosenfeld et al. "Sterilization," Civil Liberties Newspaper, March 1974.
250. For more see Reilly, The Surgical Solution.
251. Different versions of Nial Ruth Cox's story have appeared in various sources. See Weisbord, Genocide?.
252. Jack Slater, "Sterilization: Newest Threat to the Poor," Ebony, October 1973.
253. and "Sterilization," ACLU News, September 1973.
254. "3 Carolina Doctors Are Under Inquiry in Sterilization of Welfare Mothers," New York Times, 22 July 1973, 30.
255. Nancy Hicks, "Sterilization of Black Mother of 3 Stirs Aiken, S.C.," New York Times, 1 August 1973, 27.
256. Trombley, 190-191.
257. Littlewood, 109.
258. "Doctor in Sterilization Dispute Barred From Medicaid Births," New York Times, 29 September 1973, 21.
259. Angela Davis, "Racism, Birth Control, and Reproductive Rights," in From Abortion to Reproductive Freedom: Transforming a Movement, edited by Marlene Gerber Fried, 15-25 (Boston: South End Press, 1990).
260. Gordon, 258-259, 281-288.
261. Miriam Stone, "Tubal Ligation: Why and Why Not," New York Magazine, 25 September 1972.
262. Jane E. Brody, "More Than 100,000 Persons a Year Are Reported Seeking Sterilization as Method of Contraception," New York Times, 22 March 1970.
263. "Sterilization Gains Favor As Birth Control Method," San Francisco Chronicle, 14 February 1971.
264. "Those Who Choose To Be Sterilized," San Francisco Chronicle, 3 August 1972.
265. Letter from Mary McDermott to Boston Female Liberation Newsletter, 2 August 1971.
266. "Mother of 3 to Fight Sterilization Ban," New York Times, 29 August 1971.
267. "Third World Sisters: No forced sterilization," The Militant, 30 July 1971, 21.
268. Reagan, 210-215.
269. Marion K. Sanders, "The Right Not To Be Born," Harper's Magazine (April 1970): 92-99.
270. Shirley Chisolm, Unbought and Unbossed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970), 113-122.
271. Willard Cates, Jr., M.D., M.P.H., "Abortion Attitudes of Black Women," Women & Health 2, no.3 (November/December 1977): 3-9.
272. Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, revised edition (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 156-157.
273. Reagan, 206-214.
274. "Black Women Leaders Assail Medicaid Anti-Abortion Ban," Planned Parenthood Press Release, 20 December 1973. Planned Parenthood Federation of America Records, Sophia Smith Collection, Box 66, Smith College, Northampton, MA.
275. Chisolm, 114.
276. Gordon, 95-116.
277. Chisolm, 122.
278. Frances Beal, "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female," in The Black Woman, ed. Toni Cade Bambara (New York: Signet, 1970), 93-99.
279. Mary Treadwell, "Is Abortion Black Genocide?" Family Planning Perspectives 4, no.1 (January 1972): 4-5.
280. Beal, 97-98.
281. For more on black women's reproductive experiences during slavery in the antebellum American South, see Deborah White, Ar'n't I a Woman (New York: W.W. Norton, 1985).
282. Ross, 184-185.
283. Smith, Barbara. Interview by author. 19 May 1995.
284. Naomi Gray, "Blacks Question Zero Population Growth as Goal," Planned Parenthood World Population Collection, n.d. (1971), Box 197, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College.
285. Loretta Horrell, "Gray Denounces 'Black Genocide,'"Pittsburgh News, 31 March 1971, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Box 107.
286. Gray, "Blacks Question Zero Population." 75.
287. Treadwell, "Is Abortion Black Genocide?", 4.
288. Lucinda Cisler, "Unfinished Business: Birth Control and Women's Liberation," in Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of the Writings of the Women's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan, 245-288 (New York: Random House, 1970).
289. "More Involuntary Sterilizations Disclosed," The Black Panther 10, no.9 (14 July 1973): 7.
290. Harold 4X, "Welfare Dupes Black Teenagers: Alabama sisters 'sterile for life' father suing gov't'," Muhammad Speaks, 13 July 1973, 4, 10.
291. "OEO, HEW Funds Were Used-Center Brings Suit to Ban Imposed Sterilization and Medical Experimentation on Poor People," Poverty Law Report: A Publication of the Southern Poverty Law Center 1, no.3 (September 1973): 1, 4.
292. Gerald Lipson and Dianne Wolman, "Polling Americans on Birth Control and Population," Family Planning Perspectives 4, no. 1 (January 1972): 39-42.
293. Castellano Turner and William A. Darity, "Fears of Genocide among Black Americans as Related to Age, Sex, and Region," American Journal of Public Health 63, no.12 (December 1973): 1029-1034.
294. Willard Cates, Jr., M.D., M.P.H., "Abortion Attitudes of Black Women," Women & Health 2, no.3 (November/December 1977): 3-9.
295. Kenyon C. Burke (Planned Parenthood-World Population Community Affairs Director), "Black Organizations and Population Policy," Miami Times, 11 December 1973.
296. "Birth Control. The relevant question is not, 'If you have all those babies, how will you care for them?' But 'Why can't we all get enough to care for our children?'"The Black Panther 4, no.9 (7 February 1970): 7.
297. Frances Ruffin, "Birth Control, A Choice: Genocide or Survival?" Reprinted from Essence, September 1972, Planned Parenthood World Population, Box 9, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College.
298. Cleaver, Kathleen. Interview by author. New York, NY. 8 October 1996.
299. Robert G. Weisbord, Genocide? Birth Control and the Black American (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1975), 34-37.
300. Thomas Littlewood, The Politics of Population Control (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977), 118.
301. See Donald P. Schwartz, "The Harlem Hospital Center Experience," in The Abortion Experience: Psychological & Medical Impact, edited by Howard J. Osofsky and Joy D. Osofsky, 94-121 (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 94-121.
302. Ronald Walters, "Population Control and the Black Community: Part II," The Black Scholar, June 1974, 29.
303. Roy Innis, "Speaking Out: The Zero Population Growth Game," Ebony, November 1974, Planned Parenthood World Population, Box 197, Sophia Smith Collection.
304. Julius Lester, "From the Other Side of the Tracks," The Guardian, 17 August 1968, Planned Parenthood World Population, Box 197, Sophia Smith Collection.
305. Weisbord, 42-46, 48, 88.
306. For more on population control in the United States, see Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right, revised edition (New York: Penguin, 1990).
307. Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice, revised edition (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990).
308. Gordon, 303.
309. Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (New York: Ballantine Books, 1969).
310. Littlewood, 9.
311. James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 371-380.
312. Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie: Single Pregnancy and Race Before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992), 208-209.
313. Martha Ward, Poor Women, Powerful Men: America's Great Experiment in Family Planning (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986), 45.
314. Donald T. Critchlow, "Birth Control, Population Control, and Family Planning: An Overview," Journal of Policy History 7, no.1 (1995): 1-21.
315. Donald T. Critchlow, Intended Consequences: Birth Control, Abortion, and the Federal Government in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
316. Critchlow, "Birth Control, Population Control," 14-15.
317. Reed, 54-56.
318. Littlewood, 9-10.
319. Petchesky, 118-120.
320. Elijah Muhammad, "The Birth Control Death Plan: Muhammad's Prophetic Warning," Muhammad Speaks, 27 October 1967, 7-8.
321. For more on the Black Muslims see C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America, third edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1994).
322. Claude Andrew Clegg III, An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1997).
323. Muhammad, 7.
324. "Mr. Muhammad Speaks," Muhammad Speaks, 4 July 1959, Planned Parenthood World Population, Box 197, Sophia Smith Collection.
325. Turner and Darity, 1029-1034.
326. "Black Population, 1 Billion!" Muhammad Speaks, 6 October 1967, 5, 24.
327. Muhammad, "The Birth Control Death Plan," 7-8.
328. Steven Trombley, The Right to Reproduce: History of Coercive Sterilization (London: Weinfeld & Nicolson, 1988), 219.
329. Betsy Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control (Boston: South End Press, 1995), particularly chapters 12 and 13.
330. Nilanjana Chatterjee and Nancy E Riley, "Planning an Indian Modernity: The Gendered Politics of Fertility Control," Signs 26, no. 3 (Spring 2001): 812-845.
331. Muhammad, "The Birth Control Death Plan," 6-7.
332. Lonnie 2X, "Murder of the Black Unborn: Massive Birth, Sterilization Program Aimed at Reducing Black Population," Muhammad Speaks, 6 October 1967, 5-6.
333. Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Population Policy & Women's Rights: Transforming Reproductive Choice (Westport: Praeger, 1993).
334. Hartmann, 251-254.
335. See Hartmann, 85, 251.
336. "U.S. Behind Plot for 'Birth Control' of African-Asian Population," Muhammad Speaks, 20 June 1969, 7.
337. Charles Greenlee, "Quiet Drive for Black Genocide," Muhammad Speaks, 2 May 1969, 27-28, 33, 38.
338. "Negro Infant Deaths Still 90% Higher Than Whites," Muhammad Speaks, 29 September 1967, 6.
339. "How Poverty Kills Black Babies at Appalling Rate," Muhammad Speaks, 15 December 1967, 22.
340. "Nutrition Expert Surveys Pre-Natal U.S.A.: Pigs Get Better Care Than Pregnant Women," Muhammad Speaks, 25 April 1969, 35, 38.
341. "Poverty and Ill Health Go Hand-in-Hand, Doctor Says," Muhammad Speaks, 29 December 1967, 2.
342. See Petchesky, 151-152.
343. Teri Randall, "Infant Mortality Receiving Increasing Attention," JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association 263, no. 19 (16 May 1990): 2604-2605.
344. "Black-White Disparities in Health Care," JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association 263, no.17 (2 May 1990): 2344-2347.
345. Ogun Kokanfo, "Why Blacks Must Resist Govt.'s Genocidal Birth Control Programs: Budget for Welfare Delayed: Birth Control Budget Zooms Up," Muhammad Speaks, 25 July 1969, 7.
346. McCreary, Thomas. Interview by author. New York, NY. 14 May 1997.
347. Karl Knapper, "Women and the Black Panther Party: an interview with Angela Brown," Socialist Review 26, no.1-2 (1996): 33-67.
348. Knapper (interview with Brown), 52-53.
349. Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther (Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1994), 109-111.
350. Knapper, 40.
351. For more on the history of the Black Panthers, see The Black Panther Party [Reconsidered], edited by Charles Jones (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998).
352. Brownmiller, Susan. Interview by author. New York, NY. 30 September 1996.
353. Baxandall, Rosalind. Interview by author. New York, NY. 22 January 1997.
354. Elaine Brown, Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), 234-235.
355. Newton quoted in Brown, 249.
356. Knapper, 38, 50.
357. Brown, 357, 362-376, 401-429.
358. "Birth Control. The relevant question is not, 'If you have all those babies, how will you care for them?'," 7.
359. "Health Care-Pig Style," The Black Panther 4, no.9 (7 February 1970): 7.
360. "NYC Passed New Abortion Law Effective July 1, 1970," The Black Panther 5, no.1 (4 July 1970): 2.
361. "Sterilization-Another Part of Black Genocide," The Black Panther 6, no.15 (8 May 1971): 2.
362. "Welfare Women Fight Tenn. Sterilization Bill," Southern Patriot, April 1971.
363. "Sterilize Welfare Mothers?" The Guardian, 10 April 1971.
364. "Doctors Defend Sterilizations," The Black Panther 10, no.13 (11 August 1973): 5, 13.
365. "Puerto Rican Women's Leader Discusses Sterilization Abuse," The Black Panther 15, no.7 (29 May 1976): 5, 22.
366. Brown, 368.
367. "Our Health: Breast Cancer Check-Up," The Black Panther 12, no.20 (7 December 1974): 8.
368. "People's Free Clinic Helps Meet Community's Nutritional Needs," The Black Panther 12, no.17 (16 November 1974): 4, 20.
369. "Boston Abortion Witchhunt Convicts Black Doctor," The Black Panther, 13, no.3 (8 March 1975): 10, 24.
370. "Women's Rights Set Back By Supreme Court Rulings," The Black Panther 17, no.5 (16 July 1977): 14.
371. "Carter to Poor Women Seeking Abortions: Tough Luck!" The Black Panther 17, no.7 (30 July 1977): 9.
372. "Black Mother Victim of Decadent Welfare System," The Black Panther 5, no.15 (10 October 1970): 9.
373. "Family Assistance Plan and Welfare-Racist Institutions," The Black Panther 6, no.7 (13 March 1971): 4.
374. "Work or Starve: Carter Plan to Cut Millions Off Welfare," The Black Panther 16, no.29 (4 June 1977): 1, 6.
375. "Milwaukee Welfare Mother Left Homeless," The Black Panther 16, no.29 (4 June 1977): 3, 12.
376. "Supreme Court: Welfare Cutoffs For Not Cooperating," 16: no. 30 (11 June 1977): 5.
377. "Interview with Margaret Sloan: National Black Feminist Organization Seeks Solutions to Problems of Black Women," The Black Panther 14, no.3 (6 October 1975): 11, 20.
378. "Supreme Court Rulings Attack Women's Rights," The Black Panther 16, no.8 (1 January 1977): 7, 25.
379. Gloria Cruz (Health Captain), "Murder at Lincoln," Palante 2 (July 1970): 3.
380. Iris Morales Luciano, "Puerto Rican Genocide," Palante 2 (May 1970): 8-9.
381. Background material on the Young Lords appears in the following: Iris Morales, Palante Siempre Palante: The Young Lords Point of View, PBS, 18 October 1996.
382. The Young Lords Party and Michael Abramson, Palante: Young Lords Party (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971).
383. Augustin Lao, "Resources of Hope: Imagining the Young Lords and the Politics of Memory," Centro: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies 7 (Winter 94-95/Spring 95): 34-39.
384. Roberto P. Rodriguez-Morazzani, "Puerto Rican Political Generations in New York: Pioneros, Young Turks and Radicals," Centro: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies 4 (Winter 1991-92): 96-117.
385. Oliver, Denise. Interview by author. New York, 1 August 1999.
386. For more general information on the Young Lords, see: Hiram Maristany, The Young Lords Party, 1969-1975 (New York: Visual Arts Research Center Relating to the Carribean, 1983).
387. National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America, Young Lords Organization (New York: 1970).
388. Ideology of the Young Lords Party (New York: Young Lords Party, 1972).
389. Oliver, interview, 1999.
390. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, Palante, 1-3.
391. Lao, "Resources of Hope," 36.
392. Morales, Palante Siempre Palante.
393. Perez, Richie. Interview by author. New York, 23 January 1997.
394. Jose Yglesias, "Right On With the Young Lords," New York Times, 7 June 1970, 32.
395. "2 Young Lords Accused of Harlem Arson Attempt," New York Times, 15 October 1970, 51.
396. Judy Klemesrud, "Young Women Find a Place in High Command of Young Lords," New York Times, 11 November 1970, 52.
397. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, Palante, 3.
398. Lao, "Resources of Hope," 38.
399. Silvers, Cleo. Interview by author. New York, 20 October 1997.
400. Klemesrud, "Young Women Find a Place," 52.
401. Oliver, interview, 1999.
402. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, 52.
403. Sanabria, Angie. Interview by author. New York, 8 November 1996.
404. "Position Paper on Women," NACLA Newsletter 4, no. 6 (1970):14-17.
405. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, Palante, 50-51.
406. Annette B. Ramirez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 87-88, 159.
407. Petchesky, Rosalind. Interview by author. New York, 4 December 1997.
408. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 16-17.
409. Laura Briggs, "Discourses of Forced Sterilization: The Problem with the Speaking Subaltern," Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 10, no.2 (Summer 1998): 44-45.
410. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 19-23.
411. Briggs, "Discourses of Forced Sterilization," 40.
412. Donald T. Critchlow, "Birth Control, Population Control, and Family Planning: An Overview," Journal of Policy History 7 (1995): 38.
413. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 45-49.
414. Briggs, "Discourses of Forced Sterilization," 42-43.
415. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 141.
416. Betsy Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control (Boston: South End Press, 1995), 190-191.
417. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 139.
418. see Briggs, "Discourses of Forced Sterilization,".
419. Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs, 190-191.
420. Bonnie Mass, "Puerto Rico: A Case Study of Population Control," Latin American Perspectives 4 (Fall 1977): 66-81.
421. Jay Katz, Experimentation with Human Beings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972), 739, 741.
422. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 137-138.
423. Paul Vaughan, The Pill on Trial (New York: Coward-McCann, 1970), 39.
424. Elizabeth Siegel Watkins, On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950-1970 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 32.
425. See Watkins, On the Pill, chapter 5.
426. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
427. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 26-27.
428. Critchlow, "Birth Control, Population Control, and Family Planning," 36.
429. Gloria Colon, "Abortions," Palante 3 (March/April 1971): 12.
430. Morales Luciano, "Puerto Rican Genocide," 8-9.
431. Critchlow, "Birth Control, Population Control, and Family Planning," 13, 16-17, 27.
432. de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception, 137.
433. Morales Luciano, "Puerto Rican Genocide," 8-9.
434. Iris Lopez, "Genocide for the Poor," Palante 5 (February 1974): 3.
435. Oliver, Denise. Interview by author. New York, 18 April 2000.
436. Robles, Olgie. Interview by author. New York, 18 April 2000.
437. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, Palante, 71.
438. "Position Paper on Women," 14-17.
439. Cruz, "Murder at Lincoln," 3.
440. John Sibley, "Dr. Smith Is Back in Lincoln Post," New York Times, 2 September 1970, 75.
441. Harry Schwartz, "Hospital Target for a Test by Radicals," New York Times, 6 September 1970, 12.
442. Smith, Michael. Interview by author. New York, 12 July 1997.
443. "Position Paper on Women," 16.
444. "Lincoln Hospital Must Serve the People," Palante (September 1970): 3.
445. Willard Cates, Jr., "Legal Abortion: The Public Health Record," Science 215 (March 1982): 1586-1590.
446. Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, revised edition (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 156-157.
447. "Position Paper on Women," 17.
448. Colon, "Abortions," 12.
449. The Young Lords Party and Abramson, Palante, 51.
450. See Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Labor, 1965).
451. For more information see: Stephanie Urdang, Fighting Two Colonialisms: Women in Guinea-Bissau (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1980).
452. Stephanie Urdang, And Still They Dance: Women, War, and the Struggle for Change in Mozambique (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1989).
453. Richard Fagan, Carmen Diana Deere, Jose Luis Corragio, eds., Transition and Development: Problems of Third World Socialism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1986).
454. Andrew Parker, Mary Russo, Doris Sommer, and Patricia Yaeger, eds., Nationalisms and Sexualities (New York: Routledge, 1991).
455. Barbara Laslett, Johanna Brenner, and Yesim Arat, eds., Rethinking the Political: Gender, Resistance, and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
456. Caren Kaplan, Norma Alarcon, and Minoo Moallem, Between Woman and Nation: Nationalisms, Transnational Feminisms, and the State (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999).
457. See Norma Alarcon, "The Theoretical Subject(s) of This Bridge Called My Back and Anglo-American Feminism," in Making Face, Making Soul/Hacienda Caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Women of Color, ed. Gloria Anzuldua (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1997) for a discussion of how subjectivity is constituted across multiple discourses.
458. See Frances Beal, "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female," in The Black Woman, ed. Toni Cade Bambara (New York: Signet, 1970), 97-98.
459. Black Women's Liberation Group, Mount Vernon, New York, "Statement on Birth Control," in Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From the Women's Liberation Movement, ed. Robin Morgan (New York: Random House, 1970), 360-361.
460. "Third World Sisters," The Militant (July 1971): 21.
461. Smith, Barbara. Interview by author. 19 May 1995.
462. Samuel, Patricia. Interview by author. April 21, 2002.
463. CARASA, Women Under Attack: Abortion, Sterilization Abuse, and Reproductive Freedom (revised), edited by Sue Davis (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 21.
464. Grossman, Atina. Interview by author. New York, NY. 19 September 1997.
465. Stamm, Karen. Interview by author. New York, NY. 24 August 1997.
466. Tax, Meredith. Interview by author. New York, NY. 1 August 1994.
467. Barbara Zeluck, "Special Report: Know Your Rights--Pregnancy Disability Benefits," CARASA NEWS 2, no.2 (9 March 1978): 12.
468. Women Under Attack, 1979, 58.
469. Horvath, Theresa. Interview by author. New York, NY. 27 January 1998.
470. "Sterilization Guidelines: 22 Months on the Shelf," Medical World News, 9 November 1973, 53-61.
471. Stamm, interview, 1997.
472. "Why Sterilization Guidelines Are Needed," CESA Notes, 1974, 1, 10 (private collection).
473. Rickie Solinger, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), 10-11.
474. Thomas M. Shapiro, Population Control Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 138-139.
475. Stamm, interview, 1997.
476. Helen Rodriguez-Trias, "Women and the Health Care System: Sterilization Abuse," The Women's Center, Barnard College, 1978 (lecture given at the Women's Center Reid Lectureship, 10-11 November 1976), 9.
477. Armstrong, Esta. Interview by author. New York, NY. 19 May 1995.
478. Shapiro, 137.
479. "Why Sterilization Guidelines Are Needed," 1, 3.
480. For more information on the women's health movement see Carole Weisman, Women's Health Care: Activist Traditions and Institutional Change (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
481. Reforming Medicine: Lessons of the Last Quarter Century, edited by Victor W. Sidel and Ruth Sidel (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984).
482. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978).
483. Gena Corea, The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Women as Patients and Professionals. New York: William Morrow, 1977.
484. Ellen Frankfort, Vaginal Politics (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972).
485. Barbara and John Ehrenreich, The American Health Empire: Power, Profits, and Politics (New York: Random House, 1970).
486. Elissa Krauss, "Hospital Survey on Sterilization Policies," Reproductive Freedom Project, ACLU, 1975.
487. Public Citizen's Health Research Group, "Study on Surgical Sterilization: Present Abuses and Proposed Regulations," 29 October 1973.
488. "Why Sterilization Guidelines Are Needed," 3.
489. Rodriguez-Trias, 20.
490. Shapiro, 146-148, 161-165.
491. Rodriguez-Trias, 21-22.
492. Shapiro, 146-148, 161-165.
493. Shapiro, 146-148, 161-165.
494. Rodriguez-Triaz, Epilogue.
495. Anne Teicher, "Legislative Report: Sterilization Bill," CARASA NEWS, 2, no.2 (9 March 1978): 13.
496. Petchesky, Rosalind. Interview by author. New York, NY. 4 December 1997.
497. Meredith Tax, "CARASA's Steering Committee: What It Does, How It Works," CARASA NEWS 2, no. 2 (7 December 1978): 4.
498. Stamm, interview, 1997.
499. "National Committee Report," CARASA NEWS, 2, no.6 (1 July 1978): 10.
500. Willis, Ellen. Interview by author. New York. 1 October 1996.
501. Rosalyn Baxandall, Interview by author. New York, N4, 1997.
502. Horvath, interview, 1998.
503. CARASA NEWS 2, no.2 (9 March 1978): 12.
504. "CARASA Principles of Unity," CARASA NEWS 3, no.1 (1 February 1979): 28-29.
505. Karen Stamm, "Strategies for Reproductive Rights," CARASA NEWS 6, no.2 (March 1982): 8.
506. "Learning from the Past," CARASA NEWS 2, no.7 (3 August 1978): 1, 4.
507. "Learning from the Past," 9-10.
508. Women Under Attack, 1979, 21.
509. McRae v. Califano, 491 F. Supp. 630, 690-702 (E.D.N.Y. 1980).
510. CARASA NEWS 2, no.2 (9 March 1978): 2.
511. Rhonda Copelon, "McRae vs. Califano: 'Hyde' Hides Church-State Issue," CARASA NEWS 2, no.5 (1 June 1978): 2.
512. "Learning from the Past," 9-10.
513. "CARASA Principles of Unity (Proposed)," CARASA NEWS 2, no.5 (1 June 1978): 20-21.
514. Meredith Tax, "Abortion Rights Action Week," CARASA NEWS 3, no.6 (July-August 1979): 4-5.
515. Women Under Attack, 1988, 56.
516. "A Call To Action," CARASA NEWS 3, no.7 (September 1979): 1.
517. Tax, "Abortion Rights Action Week," 5.
518. Rhonda Copelon, "The Truth About HLA," CARASA NEWS 3, no.8 (October 1979): 16.
519. "Women Are Not Criminals for Defending Their Rights," CARASA NEWS 5, no.9 (November 1981): 4-5.
520. Stamm, interview, 1997.
521. "Women Are Not Criminals," 4-5.
522. CARASA announcement for "March 31 International Day of Action-A Woman's Right to Safe Contraception and Abortion-No Forced Sterilization" (pamphlet, early 1979), private collection.
523. "CARASA Principles of Unity," 28-29.
524. "Learning from the Past," 9-10.
525. Petchesky, interview, 1997.
526. Meredith Tax, "CARASA's Steering Committee".
527. Karen Stamm, "News," CARASA NEWS 2, no.11 (7 December 1978): 7.
528. Karen Stamm, "City Releases Sterilization Data," CARASA NEWS 2, no.11 (7 December 1978): 11.
529. Ann Teicher, "Eugenics Law vs. Right of Informed Consent," CARASA NEWS 2, no.11 (7 December 1978): 11.
530. For more on corporate regulation of women's reproduction, see Cynthia Daniels, At Women's Expense: State Power and the Politics of Fetal Rights (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
531. Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), chapter 7.
532. "The Debate over Equality for Women in the Work Place: Recognizing Differences," Women and Work: Annual Review 1 (1985): 141-61.
533. Lise Vogel, "Debating Difference: Feminism, Pregnancy, and the Workplace," Feminist Studies 16, no.1 (Spring 1990): 9-32.
534. Fran Sugarman, "Jobs or Children: A Choice?" CARASA NEWS 3, no.2 (22 March 1979): 13.
535. Daniels, 63-64.
536. Netsy Firestein quoted in Sugarman, 13.
537. Fran Sugarman and Ruthann Evanoff, "Reproductive Hazards of Your Job," CARASA NEWS 3, no.4 (June 1979): 1, 3.
538. "Resolution on Reproductive Rights" CARASA NEWS 3, no.8 (October 1979): 9.
539. Sugarman and Evanoff, 3.
540. "Women's Rights in the Workplace and the Home: A Conference," 20 November 1982, Rayna Rapp Collection, Box 2, Folder 28, Wisconsin Historical Society.
541. Sean MacDonald, vice president, Local 2054, "Forum Explores Rights of Women," Public Employee Press 9 (10 December 1982), Rayna Rapp Collection, Box 2, Folder 37.
542. Petchesky, interview, 1997.
543. Beth Bush Greenstein, "Child Care and the Right to Choose," CARASA NEWS 5, no.3 (April 1981): 5, 7.
544. Greenstein, 5.
545. Sara Evans, Born For Liberty: A History of Women in America (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 301-304.
546. Greenstein, 7.
547. Beth Bush Greenstein, "Child Care Conference," CARASA NEWS 4, no.4 (May 1980): 12-13, 20.
548. Beth Bush Greenstein, "Raising Children: Continuing the Struggle," CARASA NEWS 4, no.10 (December 1980): 14.
549. Horvath, interview, 1998.
550. "Upper West Side," CARASA NEWS 2, no.12/3, no.1 (1 February 1979): 39.
551. Horvath, interview, 1998.
552. Horvath, interview, 1998.
553. "Westside Community Outreach," CARASA NEWS 2, no.8 (7 September 1978): 18.
554. Sally Avery Bermanzohn, "Support for Medgar Evers in Women's Movement," CARASA NEWS 7, no.1 (January-February 1983): 8, 20.
555. "CARASA Action in Review," CARASA NEWS n.d. (Spring? 1980): 3-6, 18.
556. Helen Wood, "Sterilization Abuse," CARASA NEWS 4, no.9 (November 1980): 6-7.
557. Horvath, interview, 1998.
558. Petchesky, interview, 1997.
559. Jill Benderly, "Report on the R2N2 Conference," CARASA NEWS 6, no.5 (June 1982): 7-9.
560. Sally Avery Bermanzohn, "Speaking Out," CARASA NEWS 6, no.6 (July 1982): 22-23.
561. Stamm, interview, 1997.
562. Horvath, interview, 1998.
563. See Alice Echols, Daring To Be Bad, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), chapter 5.
564. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000), 164-175.
565. Janet Price, "Lesbian Rights and Reproductive Rights," CARASA NEWS 6, no.6 (July 1982): 6-7, 30.
566. "March 31 International Day of Action-A Woman's Right to Safe Contraception and Abortion-No Forced Sterilization.".
567. "CARASA Speaks at Gay Rights Hearings," CARASA NEWS 2, no.11 (7 December 1978): 5-6.
568. Alison Colbert, "An Open Letter to CARASA," CARASA NEWS 4, no.1 (January 1980): 20.
569. Stamm, interview, 1997.
570. Stephanie Roth, "Lesbianism and the Politics of Women's Sexuality," CARASA NEWS 4, no.9 (November 1980): 11.
571. "Letters to CARASA," CARASA NEWS 6, no.4 (May 1982): 12-14.
572. "Letters to CARASA," CARASA NEWS 6, no.5 (June 1982): 18.
573. Stamm, interview, 1997.
574. Grossman, interview, 1997.
575. Petchesky, interview, 1997.
576. Robert Ourlian, "Woman Offers Payment if Addicts Get Sterilization," Los Angeles Times, 24 October 1997, A3.
577. Lynn Smith, "The $200 Question Concerned About Drug Babies, an Orange County Group is Offering Moms Cash if They Opt for Contraception or Even Sterilization. But is Such an Approach Moral? Critics Ask," Los Angeles Times, 3 April 1998, E1.
578. Suzanne Herel, "Who Pays Addicts Not to Conceive Is Welcomed 366 have been sterilized or given birth control," San Francisco Chronicle, 1 February 2001, A13.
579. Mary A. Mitchell, "Sterilization plan beats alternative, activist says," Chicago Sun-Times, 1 August 1999, 16.
580. Tatsha Robertson, "3 N.H. addicts give up fertility Pick controversial program offering $200," Boston Globe, 28 August 1999, B1.
581. For a discussion of coercion and choice, see Rosalind Petchesky, "Reproductive Choice in the Contemporary United States: A Social Analysis of Female Sterilization," in And the Poor Get Children: Radical Perspectives on Population Dynamics, edited by Karen L. Michaelson, 50-88 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981).
582. Rashmi Luthra, "Toward a Reconceptualization of 'Choice': Challenges by Women at the Margins," Feminist Issues 13, no.1 (Spring 93): 41-55.
583. Rickie Solinger, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
584. Dorothy Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts with Babies: Women of Color, Equality, and the Right of Privacy," in Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000, edited by Rickie Solinger, 127-129 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
585. Dorothy Roberts, "Symposium: Representing Race: Unshackling Black Motherhood," Michigan Law Review 95, no.4 (February 1997): 938-965.
586. Dorothy Roberts, "Creating and Solving the Problem of Drug Use during Pregnancy," Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 90, no.4 (Summer 2000): 1353-1371.
587. Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts with Babies," 135-136.
588. Lawrence O. Gostin, "The Rights of Pregnant Women: The Supreme Court and Drug Testing," The Hastings Center Report 31, no.5 (Sept./Oct. 2001): 8-9.
589. Roberts, "Unshackling Black Motherhood," 946-948.
590. Roberts, "Creating and Solving the Problem of Drug Use during Pregnancy," 1364.
591. Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts with Babies," 132.
592. Ira J. Chasnoff, Harvey J. Landress, and Mark E. Barrett, "The Prevalence of Illicit-Drug or Alcohol Use during Pregnancy and Discrepancies in Mandatory Reporting in Pinellas County, Florida," New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990): 1202-1206.
593. Roberts, "Unshackling Black Motherhood," 953.
594. Roberts, "Creating and Solving the Problem of Drug Use during Pregnancy," 1365-1369.
595. Mary Ann Jimenez, "A Feminist Analysis of Welfare Reform: The Personal Responsibility Act of 1996," Journal of Women & Social Work 14, no.3 (Fall 1999): 278-294.
596. Jerido, Patricia. Interview by author. New York, NY. 25 June 2002.
597. Fried, Marlene Gerber. Interview by author. New York, NY. 26 June 2002.
598. Loretta J. Ross, Sarah L. Brownlee, Dazon Dixon Diallo, Luz Rodriquez, and SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Health Project, "Just Choices: Women of Color, Reproductive Health and Human Rights," in Policing the National Body: Race, Gender, and Criminalization, edited by Jael Silliman and Anannya Bhattacharjee, 147-174 (Cambridge: South End Press, 2002).