Crossing the border for abortions: California activists, Mexican clinics, and the creation of a feminist health agency in the 1960s

Feminist Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 323-348

  Reagan, Leslie J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040807623     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178537     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. The flyer named eight doctors in Mexico, in Tijuana and Mexicali. See San Francisco Chronicle, 17 June 1966, folder 59, box 3, Records of the Society for Humane Abortion and the Association to Repeal Abortion Laws (hereafter cited as SHA-ARAL), Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Mass.
2. For discussions of the Society for Humane Abortion and Patricia Maginnis, see Kristin Luker Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 95-100-Nina Baehr, Abortion without Apology: A Radical History for the 1990s, pamphlet, no 8 (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 7-20; Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-3973 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1997) 222-24; David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of "Roe v. Wade" (New York: Macmillan, 1994), chap. 5; and Lawrence Lader Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 26-34.
3. For discussions of the Society for Humane Abortion and Patricia Maginnis, see Kristin Luker Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 95-100-Nina Baehr, Abortion without Apology: A Radical History for the 1990s, pamphlet, no 8 (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 7-20; Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-3973 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1997) 222-24; David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of "Roe v. Wade" (New York: Macmillan, 1994), chap. 5; and Lawrence Lader Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 26-34.
4. For discussions of the Society for Humane Abortion and Patricia Maginnis, see Kristin Luker Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 95-100-Nina Baehr, Abortion without Apology: A Radical History for the 1990s, pamphlet, no 8 (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 7-20; Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-3973 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1997) 222-24; David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of "Roe v. Wade" (New York: Macmillan, 1994), chap. 5; and Lawrence Lader Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 26-34.
5. For discussions of the Society for Humane Abortion and Patricia Maginnis, see Kristin Luker Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 95-100-Nina Baehr, Abortion without Apology: A Radical History for the 1990s, pamphlet, no 8 (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 7-20; Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-3973 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1997) 222-24; David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of "Roe v. Wade" (New York: Macmillan, 1994), chap. 5; and Lawrence Lader Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 26-34.
6. For discussions of the Society for Humane Abortion and Patricia Maginnis, see Kristin Luker Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 95-100-Nina Baehr, Abortion without Apology: A Radical History for the 1990s, pamphlet, no 8 (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 7-20; Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-3973 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1997) 222-24; David J. Garrow, Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of "Roe v. Wade" (New York: Macmillan, 1994), chap. 5; and Lawrence Lader Abortion II: Making the Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 26-34.
7. For essays on the field, see Bruce J. Schulman, "Out of the Streets and into the Classroom? The New Left and the Counterculture in United States History Textbooks," Journal of American History 85 (March 1999): 1527-34; and David Farber, Introduction, The Sixties: From Memory to History, ed. David Farber (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 1-10. See also Philippa Levine and Judith DeGroat, "Teaching Medical History: Introduction," Radical History Review, no. 74 (spring 1999): 137-39.
8. For essays on the field, see Bruce J. Schulman, "Out of the Streets and into the Classroom? The New Left and the Counterculture in United States History Textbooks," Journal of American History 85 (March 1999): 1527-34; and David Farber, Introduction, The Sixties: From Memory to History, ed. David Farber (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 1-10. See also Philippa Levine and Judith DeGroat, "Teaching Medical History: Introduction," Radical History Review, no. 74 (spring 1999): 137-39.
9. For essays on the field, see Bruce J. Schulman, "Out of the Streets and into the Classroom? The New Left and the Counterculture in United States History Textbooks," Journal of American History 85 (March 1999): 1527-34; and David Farber, Introduction, The Sixties: From Memory to History, ed. David Farber (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 1-10. See also Philippa Levine and Judith DeGroat, "Teaching Medical History: Introduction," Radical History Review, no. 74 (spring 1999): 137-39.
10. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1990), 436-46; Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978).
11. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1990), 436-46; Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978).
12. On massive lawbreaking as a source of legal change, see Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, rev. ed. (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 125-32; on NARAL, see Garrow, 350, 358-61; Lader, 88-97.
13. On massive lawbreaking as a source of legal change, see Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, rev. ed. (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 125-32; on NARAL, see Garrow, 350, 358-61; Lader, 88-97.
14. On massive lawbreaking as a source of legal change, see Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom, rev. ed. (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 125-32; on NARAL, see Garrow, 350, 358-61; Lader, 88-97.
15. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
16. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
17. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
18. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
19. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
20. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
21. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
22. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
23. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
24. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
25. Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975), Oscar J. Martinez, ed., U.S.-Mexico Borderlands: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1996), and Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994); Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S. Mexico Border (Austin: CMAS Books, Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of Texas, 1990); Milo Kearney and Anthony Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of U.S.-Mexico Twin Cities (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1995); John A. Price, Tijuana: Urbanization in a Border Culture (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973); Jorge A. Bustamente, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (September 1992): 485-90; Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, for We Are Sold, I and My People: Women in Mexico's Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and Vicki L. Ruiz and Susan Tiano, eds., Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Debbie Nathan, a journalist, analyzes very different issues, including contemporary abortion practices on the border, in Women and Other Aliens: Essays from the U.S.-Mexico Border (El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1991), 74-83. Debra A. Castillo et al. reach the same conclusions about the state of Mexican research on the border. See their "Border Lives: Prostitute Women in Tijuana," Signs 24 (winter 1999): 387-422, esp. 398-99.
26. Letters in SHA-ARAL Records requesting abortion information and evaluations of abortion specialists have had all names and addresses removed and are identified only by the town and/or zip code of the writer and the number of the abortion specialist. The names of specialists have all been replaced with code numbers by the Schlesinger Library. These are only a few examples to show ARAL'S reach. See evaluation of No. 3 from Des Moines, Iowa, 17 Mar. 1969, folder 157, box 8; evaluation of No. 3 from Oklahoma City, 21 Aug. 1969, folder 167, box 8; requests from Springfield, Va. 22150 and Arlington, Va. 22201, [October 1967], folder 112, box 6; request from Plainview, N.Y., Jan. 1967, folder 102, box 5. All evaluations cited are in SHA-ARAL.
27. Mildred Schroeder, "One Woman's Abortion Crusade," San Francisco Examiner, 26 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
28. California law, like most states, permitted physicians to perform legal therapeutic abortions only when pregnancy threatened the life of the woman. (When an abortion was considered necessary, however, varied historically and among practitioners.) The Knox bill was the American Legal Institute's (ALI) model law on abortion, written in 1959. In 1967, Governor Ronald Reagan signed an abortion reform bill into law. By 1970, twelve states had passed the ALI model law. On Knox and California reform legislation, see Luker, 69-73; Garrow, 296-97, 330-32, chap. 5; on ALI and the roots of the reform movement, see Reagan, 218-22.
29. California law, like most states, permitted physicians to perform legal therapeutic abortions only when pregnancy threatened the life of the woman. (When an abortion was considered necessary, however, varied historically and among practitioners.) The Knox bill was the American Legal Institute's (ALI) model law on abortion, written in 1959. In 1967, Governor Ronald Reagan signed an abortion reform bill into law. By 1970, twelve states had passed the ALI model law. On Knox and California reform legislation, see Luker, 69-73; Garrow, 296-97, 330-32, chap. 5; on ALI and the roots of the reform movement, see Reagan, 218-22.
30. California law, like most states, permitted physicians to perform legal therapeutic abortions only when pregnancy threatened the life of the woman. (When an abortion was considered necessary, however, varied historically and among practitioners.) The Knox bill was the American Legal Institute's (ALI) model law on abortion, written in 1959. In 1967, Governor Ronald Reagan signed an abortion reform bill into law. By 1970, twelve states had passed the ALI model law. On Knox and California reform legislation, see Luker, 69-73; Garrow, 296-97, 330-32, chap. 5; on ALI and the roots of the reform movement, see Reagan, 218-22.
31. Patricia Maginnis Oral History (hereafter cited as PMOH), interview by Jeannette Cheek, November 1975, 79-81, 83-84, quotation on 93, Schlesinger-Rockefeller Family Planning Oral History Project, Schlesinger Library.
32. Schroeder, "One Woman's Abortion Crusade." The reform laws were restrictive in two ways: they permitted abortion for a set of specified indications, which would exclude most women who sought abortions; and they required the approval of a medical committee.
33. PMOH, 87.
34. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
35. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
36. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
37. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
38. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
39. On the counterculture, see Schulman, 1530-32; Kenneth Cmiel, "The Politics of Civility" (268-73) , George Lipsitz, "Who'll Stop the Rain? Youth Culture, Rock 'n' Roll, and Social Crises" (206-34), and Beth Bailey, "Sexual Revolutions" (235-62), all in Farber, The Sixties. On the New Left health movement and San Francisco free clinics, see Ruzek, 61-63.
40. Joan McKinney, "A Step toward Legality," San Francisco Chronicle, 20 May 1965, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
41. Susan Berman, "The Abortion Crusader," San Francisco Magazine 12 (July 1970), folder 60, box 3, SHA-ARAL; PMOH, 77;
42. Susan Berman, "The Abortion Crusader," San Francisco Magazine 12 (July 1970), folder 60, box 3, SHA-ARAL; PMOH, 77;
43. Baehr, 8-13; Patricia Maginnis, telephone interview with author, 28 May 1999, Oakland, Calif.
44. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
45. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
46. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
47. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
48. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
49. Official investigation of therapeutic abortions performed by reputable physicians was unprecedented. This incident deserves further research. See PMOH, 105-6; "Doctors Backed in Abortion Clash," New York Times, 12 Mar. 1967; Keith Monroe, "How California's Abortion Law Isn't Working," New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1968; Luker, 86-87; Garrow, 306-7, 354, on rubella, 300-1. Performing abortions for women exposed to rubella, as in this case, had been accepted by the medical profession since the mid-1950s; on therapeutic abortion, see Reagan, 61-67, 142-44, 173-81, 200-8, on rubella, 203-4.
50. Quotation from PMOH, 106. For others, see Lader, 26; Allan F. Guttmacher correspondence, 26 Sept. 1968, 18 Nov. 1968, and 16 Jan. 1969, in Allan F. Guttmacher Papers, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Heather Booth, interview with Paula Kamen, 1 Sept. 1992, Paula Kamen Collection, C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library, Evanston, Ill.
51. Quotation from PMOH, 106. For others, see Lader, 26; Allan F. Guttmacher correspondence, 26 Sept. 1968, 18 Nov. 1968, and 16 Jan. 1969, in Allan F. Guttmacher Papers, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Heather Booth, interview with Paula Kamen, 1 Sept. 1992, Paula Kamen Collection, C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library, Evanston, Ill.
52. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
53. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
54. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
55. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
56. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
57. On Jane, see Laura Kaplan, The Story of Jane: The Legendary Underground Feminist Abortion Service (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Pauline Bart, "Seizing the Means of Reproduction: An Illegal Feminist Abortion Collective-How and Why It Worked," Qualitative Sociology 10 (winter 1987): 339-57; Reagan, 224-25. On abortion referral services, see Lader, 27, 42-55; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 299-302; Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Abortion Counseling and Social Change from Illegal Act to Medical Practice: The Story of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion (Valley Forge, Penn.: Judson Press, 1973).
58. When Maginnis began leafleting she did so as an individual, not as president of SHA. To protect SHA's nonprofit status as an educational organization, she and Gurner very soon founded ARAL as a parallel organization to carry out illegal activities.
59. Quotation on Gurner is from Maginnis telephone interview with author; "Seeks Arrest for Anti-Abortion Cause," [sic] Berkeley Barb, 15 July 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL; "Tijuana Doctors Are Closed," flyer, [June 1966], Guttmacher Collection.
60. Maitland Zane, "A Do-It-Yourself Kit on Abortions," San Francisco Chronicle, 22 July 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
61. Quotation in "The State of ARAL," Society for Humane Abortion Newsletter (hereafter SHA Newsletter) 6 (winter 1970-71), C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library. Maginnis was arrested twice: for leafleting in San Francisco and with Gurner for teaching their abortion class in Redwood City in 1967. See San Francisco Chronicle clippings, 18 Aug. and 19 Aug. 1966, Guttmacher Collection; "Women Lose Second Abortion Trial," San Francisco Chronicle, 2 Nov. 1971; and "Two Abortion Crusaders Convicted," San Francisco Chronicle, 3 Nov. 1971, both in folder 20, box 2, Family Planning Oral History Project Records (hereafter cited as FPOHP), Schlesinger Library.
62. Quotation in "The State of ARAL," Society for Humane Abortion Newsletter (hereafter SHA Newsletter) 6 (winter 1970-71), C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library. Maginnis was arrested twice: for leafleting in San Francisco and with Gurner for teaching their abortion class in Redwood City in 1967. See San Francisco Chronicle clippings, 18 Aug. and 19 Aug. 1966, Guttmacher Collection; "Women Lose Second Abortion Trial," San Francisco Chronicle, 2 Nov. 1971; and "Two Abortion Crusaders Convicted," San Francisco Chronicle, 3 Nov. 1971, both in folder 20, box 2, Family Planning Oral History Project Records (hereafter cited as FPOHP), Schlesinger Library.
63. Quotation in "The State of ARAL," Society for Humane Abortion Newsletter (hereafter SHA Newsletter) 6 (winter 1970-71), C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library. Maginnis was arrested twice: for leafleting in San Francisco and with Gurner for teaching their abortion class in Redwood City in 1967. See San Francisco Chronicle clippings, 18 Aug. and 19 Aug. 1966, Guttmacher Collection; "Women Lose Second Abortion Trial," San Francisco Chronicle, 2 Nov. 1971; and "Two Abortion Crusaders Convicted," San Francisco Chronicle, 3 Nov. 1971, both in folder 20, box 2, Family Planning Oral History Project Records (hereafter cited as FPOHP), Schlesinger Library.
64. Quotation in "The State of ARAL," Society for Humane Abortion Newsletter (hereafter SHA Newsletter) 6 (winter 1970-71), C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library. Maginnis was arrested twice: for leafleting in San Francisco and with Gurner for teaching their abortion class in Redwood City in 1967. See San Francisco Chronicle clippings, 18 Aug. and 19 Aug. 1966, Guttmacher Collection; "Women Lose Second Abortion Trial," San Francisco Chronicle, 2 Nov. 1971; and "Two Abortion Crusaders Convicted," San Francisco Chronicle, 3 Nov. 1971, both in folder 20, box 2, Family Planning Oral History Project Records (hereafter cited as FPOHP), Schlesinger Library.
65. Many letter writers cited underground and mainstream media as their sources of information. For examples, see requests from San Francisco, 21 July 1966, (which cited the Berkeley Barb), folder 94, box 5; from "Mrs.," San Jose, Calif., [July 1966], (which cited a television show), folder 94, box 5; "Dear Rowena," 24 July 1967, (which cited a radio show), folder 107, box 6; "Dear Sirs," 16 Oct. 1967, (which cited the [LA] Free Press), folder 112, box 6, all in SHA-ARAL.
66. Carolyn Lund, "Abortion Crusader Dares the Police to Arrest Her," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, 17 Nov. 1966, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. For a summary of existing class lists, see Archivist's Note, (Zephotene L. Stickney), August 1979, folder 66, box 4, SHAARAL; "Auditorium Refused for Abortion Classes," newspaper clipping, no pub., 26 Apr. 1968, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. Quotation from Mildred Schroeder, "Abortions and the Law," San Francisco Examiner, 27 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Newspaper coverage and controversy over the use of a room no doubt contributed to the size of the Washington, D.C., class. Carol Honsa, "Abortion Class Draws Crowd," Washington Post, 6 Sept. 1967; "Gynecology: Disease of Unwanted Pregnancy," Time 15 Sept. 1967, both clips in folder 20, box 2, FPOHP.
67. Carolyn Lund, "Abortion Crusader Dares the Police to Arrest Her," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, 17 Nov. 1966, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. For a summary of existing class lists, see Archivist's Note, (Zephotene L. Stickney), August 1979, folder 66, box 4, SHAARAL; "Auditorium Refused for Abortion Classes," newspaper clipping, no pub., 26 Apr. 1968, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. Quotation from Mildred Schroeder, "Abortions and the Law," San Francisco Examiner, 27 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Newspaper coverage and controversy over the use of a room no doubt contributed to the size of the Washington, D.C., class. Carol Honsa, "Abortion Class Draws Crowd," Washington Post, 6 Sept. 1967; "Gynecology: Disease of Unwanted Pregnancy," Time 15 Sept. 1967, both clips in folder 20, box 2, FPOHP.
68. Carolyn Lund, "Abortion Crusader Dares the Police to Arrest Her," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, 17 Nov. 1966, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. For a summary of existing class lists, see Archivist's Note, (Zephotene L. Stickney), August 1979, folder 66, box 4, SHAARAL; "Auditorium Refused for Abortion Classes," newspaper clipping, no pub., 26 Apr. 1968, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. Quotation from Mildred Schroeder, "Abortions and the Law," San Francisco Examiner, 27 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Newspaper coverage and controversy over the use of a room no doubt contributed to the size of the Washington, D.C., class. Carol Honsa, "Abortion Class Draws Crowd," Washington Post, 6 Sept. 1967; "Gynecology: Disease of Unwanted Pregnancy," Time 15 Sept. 1967, both clips in folder 20, box 2, FPOHP.
69. Carolyn Lund, "Abortion Crusader Dares the Police to Arrest Her," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, 17 Nov. 1966, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. For a summary of existing class lists, see Archivist's Note, (Zephotene L. Stickney), August 1979, folder 66, box 4, SHAARAL; "Auditorium Refused for Abortion Classes," newspaper clipping, no pub., 26 Apr. 1968, folder 20, box 2, FPOHP. Quotation from Mildred Schroeder, "Abortions and the Law," San Francisco Examiner, 27 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Newspaper coverage and controversy over the use of a room no doubt contributed to the size of the Washington, D.C., class. Carol Honsa, "Abortion Class Draws Crowd," Washington Post, 6 Sept. 1967; "Gynecology: Disease of Unwanted Pregnancy," Time 15 Sept. 1967, both clips in folder 20, box 2, FPOHP.
70. The class lists and evaluation forms do not include demographic information. Quotation is from Maginnis, telephone interview with author; photo and reporting on Audrey Smith in Zane. See also the supportive column by African American commentator, Thomas C. Fleming's Weekly Report, The Sun-Reporter, 6 Aug. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL; Berman, 38. An SHA "Progress Report," March and April 1966, reported a talk and discussion "with an enthusiastic group of 15 Negro women in Richmond," Guttmacher Collection. During the telephone interview with author, Maginnis also named white and Black physicians who helped ARAL.
71. The class lists and evaluation forms do not include demographic information. Quotation is from Maginnis, telephone interview with author; photo and reporting on Audrey Smith in Zane. See also the supportive column by African American commentator, Thomas C. Fleming's Weekly Report, The Sun-Reporter, 6 Aug. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL; Berman, 38. An SHA "Progress Report," March and April 1966, reported a talk and discussion "with an enthusiastic group of 15 Negro women in Richmond," Guttmacher Collection. During the telephone interview with author, Maginnis also named white and Black physicians who helped ARAL.
72. Clases de aborto, folder 62, box 4, SHA-ARAL; Maginnis, interview with author.
73. "Sixteen women attend abortion instruction," Palo Alto Times, 1 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL; Schroeder, "One Woman's Abortion Crusade."
74. "Sixteen women attend abortion instruction," Palo Alto Times, 1 Sept. 1966, folder 59, box 3, SHA-ARAL; Schroeder, "One Woman's Abortion Crusade."
75. Post Abortion Care Center leaflet, [1968], folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
76. Quotation in Schroeder, "Abortions and the Law."
77. Honsa.
78. For example, "Dear Pat," evaluation of No. 36, 6 Nov. 1966, folder 119, box 6; evaluation of No. 30, 12 May 1968, folder 137, box 7.
79. Requiring people to write their legislators was "a brilliant idea of Rowena's," Maginnis recalled during our telephone interview. Because most of the records are not dated, it is unclear when ARAL began asking for contributions, but given the immediate volume of requests, it must have been early. "How to obtain the list of abortion specialists," n.d., folder 65, box 4, SHA-ARAL; Baehr, 10.
80. Quotations from "List of Abortion Specialists," [1968], folder 70, box 4, SHA-ARAL. Most of the specialists were in Mexico; traveling to Japan or Sweden was very expensive; and the Canadian physician, No. 54, took few patients and was described as "very temperamental, gruff . . . and frightening." For location of specialists, see Archivist's Note (Zephorene L. Stickney), August 1979, folder 81, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
81. Berman.
82. Reagan, chap. 6
83. Price, 60-61.
84. Quotation in Los Angeles, 90029 to ARAL, 8 July 1967, folder 107, box 6, SHA-ARAL. Initiatives like the San Diego district attorney's no doubt helped produce such fears.
85. Each of these topics deserves greater historical attention. See Gene Fowler and Bill Crawford, Border Radio: Quacks, Yodelers, Pitchmen, Psychics, and Other Amazing Broadcasters of the American Airwaves (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1987). On sex workers, pornography, and drugs, see Price, 106-13, 61-62. On divorces, see Martinez, Border Boom Town, 126.
86. Each of these topics deserves greater historical attention. See Gene Fowler and Bill Crawford, Border Radio: Quacks, Yodelers, Pitchmen, Psychics, and Other Amazing Broadcasters of the American Airwaves (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1987). On sex workers, pornography, and drugs, see Price, 106-13, 61-62. On divorces, see Martinez, Border Boom Town, 126.
87. Each of these topics deserves greater historical attention. See Gene Fowler and Bill Crawford, Border Radio: Quacks, Yodelers, Pitchmen, Psychics, and Other Amazing Broadcasters of the American Airwaves (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1987). On sex workers, pornography, and drugs, see Price, 106-13, 61-62. On divorces, see Martinez, Border Boom Town, 126.
88. Ronald J. Vogel, "Crossing the Border for Health Care: An Exploratory Analysis of Consumer Choice," Journal of Borderlands Studies 10 (spring 1995): 19-44; Robert Pear, "Online Sales Spur Illegal Importing of Medicine to U.S.," New York Times, 10 Jan. 2000, A1, A12.
89. Ronald J. Vogel, "Crossing the Border for Health Care: An Exploratory Analysis of Consumer Choice," Journal of Borderlands Studies 10 (spring 1995): 19-44; Robert Pear, "Online Sales Spur Illegal Importing of Medicine to U.S.," New York Times, 10 Jan. 2000, A1, A12.
90. Price, 87.
91. "List of Abortion Specialists," 18 Feb. 1968, folder 70, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
92. These were the "standard tourist goods" circa 1968, Price, 83, 89-90.
93. "List of Abortion Specialists," n.d., folder 70, box 4, SHA.
94. On border patrol searches for drugs, see Price, 103, 108-9.
95. "U.S. Border Guards Assault People," SHA Newsletter 4 (September 1968).
96. "List of Abortion Specialists," [1968].
97. Reagan, chap. 6.
98. Not all Americans arrested in Mexico were so lucky. Most Americans imprisoned for felonies were there for illegal drugs; a few, for abortion. I assume these were individuals involved in the business of abortion, not patients. See Price, chap. 6, 118.
99. "Specialist Listing," 1 Apr. 1968, folder 70, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
100. Over 130 specialists were included on the "List" over the years. ARAL inspected eight clinics in Japan, two in Puerto Rico, two in the United States, and one other. My calculations are based on Archivist's Note regarding specialists.
101. Rowena Gurner to No. 55, 15 Nov. 1967, folder 89, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
102. I have not attempted here a social history of individual practitioners, although when the SHA-ARAL records that are currently closed are opened, this might be possible. Quotations in No. 55 to F.H. Kirkpatrick, folder 89, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
103. Rowena Gurner to No. 55, 15 Nov. 1967; No. 55 to Rowena, Nov. [1967], both in folder 89, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
104. No. 55 to Rowena, 3 Apr. 1968; Rowena Gurner to No. 55, 10 Apr. 1968, both in folder 89, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
105. Maginnis, telephone interview with author.
106. List of Minimum Requirements, Rowena Gurner to No. 30, 17 Sept. 1967, folder 86, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
107. Abortion Report, 7 Sept. 1968, folder 144, box 7, SHA-ARAL.
108. List of Minimum Requirements. For a description of one Mexican clinic, see Donald W. Ball, "An Abortion Clinic Ethnography," Social Problems 14 (winter 1967): 243-301.
109. On abortion in Latin America, see Henry Giniger, "Birth Curb Gains in Mexican Study," New York Times, 30 Apr. 1967, 26; Juan do Onis, "Mexican Official Opposes the Pill," New York Times, 9 Nov. 1969, 26; Paul L. Montgomery, "Birth Curbs and Illegal Abortion Are Increasing in Latin America," New York Times, 18 Sept. 1967, 6. Maginnis reported Mexican women's use of the specialists and Gurner's inspection in our telephone interview. Reversing the earlier flow of women across the border, today some Mexican women cross into the United States for legal abortions. See Nathan, 75.
110. On abortion in Latin America, see Henry Giniger, "Birth Curb Gains in Mexican Study," New York Times, 30 Apr. 1967, 26; Juan do Onis, "Mexican Official Opposes the Pill," New York Times, 9 Nov. 1969, 26; Paul L. Montgomery, "Birth Curbs and Illegal Abortion Are Increasing in Latin America," New York Times, 18 Sept. 1967, 6. Maginnis reported Mexican women's use of the specialists and Gurner's inspection in our telephone interview. Reversing the earlier flow of women across the border, today some Mexican women cross into the United States for legal abortions. See Nathan, 75.
111. On abortion in Latin America, see Henry Giniger, "Birth Curb Gains in Mexican Study," New York Times, 30 Apr. 1967, 26; Juan do Onis, "Mexican Official Opposes the Pill," New York Times, 9 Nov. 1969, 26; Paul L. Montgomery, "Birth Curbs and Illegal Abortion Are Increasing in Latin America," New York Times, 18 Sept. 1967, 6. Maginnis reported Mexican women's use of the specialists and Gurner's inspection in our telephone interview. Reversing the earlier flow of women across the border, today some Mexican women cross into the United States for legal abortions. See Nathan, 75.
112. On abortion in Latin America, see Henry Giniger, "Birth Curb Gains in Mexican Study," New York Times, 30 Apr. 1967, 26; Juan do Onis, "Mexican Official Opposes the Pill," New York Times, 9 Nov. 1969, 26; Paul L. Montgomery, "Birth Curbs and Illegal Abortion Are Increasing in Latin America," New York Times, 18 Sept. 1967, 6. Maginnis reported Mexican women's use of the specialists and Gurner's inspection in our telephone interview. Reversing the earlier flow of women across the border, today some Mexican women cross into the United States for legal abortions. See Nathan, 75.
113. Quotations from List of Minimum Requirements. For examples of letters demanding refunds and warning specialists of the consequences of incompetent practices, see Rowena Gumer to No. 67, 18 Apr. 1968, folder 84, box 5; Patricia Maginnis to No. 35, 20 Mar. 1968, folder 87, box 5, SHA-ARAL. ARAL often succeeded in getting refunds, PMOH, 147.
114. For a sample evaluation form, see Information on Specialists, evaluation of No. 30 from Greeley, Colo., 1 Oct. [1968], folder 146, box 7.
115. Maginnis, telephone interview.
116. Evaluation of Agua Prieta (no code number) from Santa Barbara, 10 Oct. 1968, folder 146, box 7.
117. Evaluation of No. 10 to Mrs. P.T. Maginnis, 10 Dec. 1966, folder 118, box 6.
118. Quotations from Rowena Gurner to No. 53, Agua Prieta, 31 Oct. 1967, and letter fro mPalo Alto to "Dear Pat," [n.d.], both in folder 84, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
119. PMOH, 140.
120. Many women expressed the desire to help others. For examples, see Crystal River, Fla. 32629, Questions and Answers on No. 12, folder 117, box 9;
121. See evaluation of No. 5 from Escondido, Calif., 16 Aug. 1969, folder 167, box 8.
122. First four quoted phrases in evaluation of No. 49 from Berkeley, 19 Oct. 1968, folder 147, box 7; last quotation in evaluation of No. 49 from San Francisco, 22 Oct. 1968, folder 147, box 7. See also evaluation of No. 49 from Las Vegas, 1 Oct. 1968, folder 147, box 7. Women used similar words to describe No. 3 in Mexico City and a female specialist, No. 35, in Ciudad Juarez. See evaluation of No. 3 from San Diego, 28 Mar. 1969, folder 157, box 8; evaluation of No. 3 from Daly City, Calif., 20 Aug. 1969, folder 167, box 8; and evaluation of No. 35, "Dear Sirs" from San Diego, 2 May 1968, folder 137, box 7.
123. Evaluation of No. 30 from Greeley, Colo., 1 Oct. [1968].
124. This writer had an abortion and sterilization. (First sentence underlined in original also). Evaluation of No. 5, [1966?], folder 120, box 6.
125. Evaluation of No. 35 from Portland, Ore., 8 May 1968, folder 137, box 7.
126. Evaluation of No. 4 from San Diego, 21 Mar. 1969, folder 157, box 8.
127. "Dear Mrs. Maginnis," evaluation of No. 42, 17 Dec. 1966, folder 119, box 6.
128. The back-alley butcher stories were etched into women's minds. As one woman wrote, "I had hundreds of apprehensions about this whole thing-mostly about the 'butcher' aspect of abortion and I was so relieved that things were like I had hoped-even better." See evaluation of No. 93 from Virginia, 4 May 1970, folder 177, box 9.
129. Kaplan; Bart.
130. Maginnis, telephone interview.
131. No. 55 to Rowena, 3 Apr. 1968, folder 89, box 5; No. 35 to Patricia, 1 Aug. 1968, folder 87, box 5, SHA-ARAL. ARAL encouraged all women to keep the fees for abortion down. See "List of Abortion Specialists," 29 Mar. 1968, folder 70, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
132. PMOH, 138-39, 143.
133. ARAL inspected two clinics in the United States; see Archivist's Note regarding specialists.
134. See "Fleecers and Quasi-fleecers" in Resource Notebook, folder 76, box 4, SHA-ARAL. Quotation in ARAL to Private Shelter for Unwed, Expectant Mothers, 17 Aug. 1970, Abortion-Association to Repeal Abortion Laws, Women's Ephemera Folders (hereafter cited as WEF), C.D. McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University Library.
135. The Abortion Communication Center opened circa 1970. See Resource Notebook, folder 74, box 4, SHA-ARAL. On welfare, see R. to A.R.A.L. Girls, 22 July 1971, and San Jose, Calif, to friends, 2 Mar. 1971, both in folder 78, box 4, SHA-ARAL. SHA-ARAL collected information on psychiatrists, physicians, fees for therapeutic abortion, and insurance policies. See Resource Notebook: "Reports received by A.R.A.L. on 'therapeutic' abortions in California," 1969, Association to Repeal Abortion Laws Folder, Abortion, WEF.
136. The center served 300 clients in the first six months. "S.F. Abortion Care Center Announced," San Jose Mercury, 31 Oct. 1968, folder 60, box 3; Virginia K. Anderson form letter, 30 Sept. 1969, folder 63, box 4, both in SHA-ARAL. By early 1969, Planned Parenthood gave weekly classes on birth control. See Sharon McCahon to Mortimer Simons, 13 Feb. 1969, folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
137. Sharon McCahon to Mr. Richard Kirschman, 30 Apr. 1968; "A Post-Abortion Aid Center," San Francisco Chronicle, 31 Oct. 1968; American Humanist Association News Release, [1968], all in folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Chicago activists also provided pregnancy testing. See Margaret Strobel, "Organizational Learning in the Chicago Women's Liberation Union," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 147.
138. Sharon McCahon to Mr. Richard Kirschman, 30 Apr. 1968; "A Post-Abortion Aid Center," San Francisco Chronicle, 31 Oct. 1968; American Humanist Association News Release, [1968], all in folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL. Chicago activists also provided pregnancy testing. See Margaret Strobel, "Organizational Learning in the Chicago Women's Liberation Union," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 147.
139. See form letter to "Dear Dr." from ARAL, 9 Jan. 1971, folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL; PMOH, 146.
140. "Where to Obtain a Pregnancy Test," folder 74, box 4, SHA-ARAL; PMOH, 146.
141. "Where to Obtain a Pregnancy Test," folder 74, box 4, SHA-ARAL; PMOH, 146.
142. "Repeal Repressive Abortion Laws" leaflet, [1968], folder 52, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
143. PMOH, 147; SHA Newsletter 6, no. 1 (1969-70).
144. PMOH, 147; SHA Newsletter 6, no. 1 (1969-70).
145. Maginnis reported that they were "absolutely" trying to raise women's consciousness at the center, telephone interview.
146. No. 61 to Miss Patricia T. Maginnis, 8 Feb. 1968, and Patricia T. Maginnis to No. 61, 23 Feb. 1969, both in folder 90, box 5, SHA-ARAL. Sixty doctors attended one class on abortton procedures, SHA Newsletter 6 (summer 1970); Virginia K. Anderson to San Jose, Calif., 13 Feb. 1969, folder 63, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
147. Berman, 18; "Society for Humane Abortions Lending Library," bibliography, n.d., folder 55, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
148. Berman, 18; "Society for Humane Abortions Lending Library," bibliography, n.d., folder 55, box 3, SHA-ARAL.
149. "The State of ARAL."
150. Newspaper reports of an occasional abortion-related death in Mexico confirmed this image of Mexico. See clippings regarding an eighteen-year-old California woman who died after an abortion in Nogales. In our telephone interview, Maginnis recalled this tragedy, apparently the sole death that occurred at the time. In this case, the woman had been referred by another group, but Maginnis observed that it could have happened to ARAL. She reiterated the dangers and remarked, "I figured there would be casualties; there's nothing safe in the underground." Correspondence suggests that the responsible practitioner was a "so-called doctor" associated with Dr. No. 49 on the "List." "Abortion Mill Catered to Los Angeles District," [12 Nov. 1968]; "California Teenager's Death Uncovers Giant Abortion Mill," 1 Nov. 1968; "Mystery Abortion Mill," 13 Nov. 1968, all in Nogales, Arizona, Herald, these and related newspaper clippings in microfilm, m-100, SHA-ARAL. Quotation in 62a to Pat, 1 Aug. 1968, folder 91, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
151. Newspaper reports of an occasional abortion-related death in Mexico confirmed this image of Mexico. See clippings regarding an eighteen-year-old California woman who died after an abortion in Nogales. In our telephone interview, Maginnis recalled this tragedy, apparently the sole death that occurred at the time. In this case, the woman had been referred by another group, but Maginnis observed that it could have happened to ARAL. She reiterated the dangers and remarked, "I figured there would be casualties; there's nothing safe in the underground." Correspondence suggests that the responsible practitioner was a "so-called doctor" associated with Dr. No. 49 on the "List." "Abortion Mill Catered to Los Angeles District," [12 Nov. 1968]; "California Teenager's Death Uncovers Giant Abortion Mill," 1 Nov. 1968; "Mystery Abortion Mill," 13 Nov. 1968, all in Nogales, Arizona, Herald, these and related newspaper clippings in microfilm, m-100, SHA-ARAL. Quotation in 62a to Pat, 1 Aug. 1968, folder 91, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
152. Newspaper reports of an occasional abortion-related death in Mexico confirmed this image of Mexico. See clippings regarding an eighteen-year-old California woman who died after an abortion in Nogales. In our telephone interview, Maginnis recalled this tragedy, apparently the sole death that occurred at the time. In this case, the woman had been referred by another group, but Maginnis observed that it could have happened to ARAL. She reiterated the dangers and remarked, "I figured there would be casualties; there's nothing safe in the underground." Correspondence suggests that the responsible practitioner was a "so-called doctor" associated with Dr. No. 49 on the "List." "Abortion Mill Catered to Los Angeles District," [12 Nov. 1968]; "California Teenager's Death Uncovers Giant Abortion Mill," 1 Nov. 1968; "Mystery Abortion Mill," 13 Nov. 1968, all in Nogales, Arizona, Herald, these and related newspaper clippings in microfilm, m-100, SHA-ARAL. Quotation in 62a to Pat, 1 Aug. 1968, folder 91, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
153. Newspaper reports of an occasional abortion-related death in Mexico confirmed this image of Mexico. See clippings regarding an eighteen-year-old California woman who died after an abortion in Nogales. In our telephone interview, Maginnis recalled this tragedy, apparently the sole death that occurred at the time. In this case, the woman had been referred by another group, but Maginnis observed that it could have happened to ARAL. She reiterated the dangers and remarked, "I figured there would be casualties; there's nothing safe in the underground." Correspondence suggests that the responsible practitioner was a "so-called doctor" associated with Dr. No. 49 on the "List." "Abortion Mill Catered to Los Angeles District," [12 Nov. 1968]; "California Teenager's Death Uncovers Giant Abortion Mill," 1 Nov. 1968; "Mystery Abortion Mill," 13 Nov. 1968, all in Nogales, Arizona, Herald, these and related newspaper clippings in microfilm, m-100, SHA-ARAL. Quotation in 62a to Pat, 1 Aug. 1968, folder 91, box 5, SHA-ARAL.
154. "American" replaces "U.S." here because it would have been used in the original according to Maginnis. In 1975, Maginnis objected to both terms in "American Girl," for slighting the peoples of the rest of the Americas and for slighting women. See PMOH, 143.
155. PMOH, 144. For an example of the pervasive use of the term dirty to describe Mexico, see Merry Christmas Pat MaGinnis [sic], evaluation of No. 53, 22 Dec. 1966, folder 119, box 6, SHA-ARAL. On the early-twentieth-century construction of Mexico as dirty see Alexandra Minna Stern, "Buildings, Boundaries, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Building on the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1910-1930," Hispanic American Historical Review 79 (February 1999): 41-81.
156. PMOH, 144. For an example of the pervasive use of the term dirty to describe Mexico, see Merry Christmas Pat MaGinnis [sic], evaluation of No. 53, 22 Dec. 1966, folder 119, box 6, SHA-ARAL. On the early-twentieth-century construction of Mexico as dirty see Alexandra Minna Stern, "Buildings, Boundaries, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Building on the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1910-1930," Hispanic American Historical Review 79 (February 1999): 41-81.
157. People v. Belous, 80 Cal. Rptr. 354, 458 P. 2d 194, quotations on 196; Garrow, 354-56, 377-79. ARAL also advised avoiding Tijuana (Specialist Listing, 1 Apr. 1968, folder 70, box 4, SHA-ARAL).
158. Supplemental Sheet No. 2, 27 Nov. 1967, 18, folder 69, box 4, SHA-ARAL.
159. Before and after Roe v. Wade, SHA-ARAL ran conferences teaching doctors how to perform abortions (Maginnis, telephone interview; PMOH, 92).
160. For observations on the clinic atmosphere by women who worked both in Jane and in post-Roe clinics, see Kaplan, 283-93.