Altricial development in wood-feeding cockroaches: The key antecedent of termite eusociality

Biology of Termites: A Modern Synthesis

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 69-95

  Nalepa, Christine A ^a  

^a NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900131417     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-3977-4_4     Document Type: Chapter

References (178)

1. Alexander RM (1990) How did humans evolve? Reflections on the uniquely unique species. Univ Michigan Mus Zool Spec Publ 1:1-38
2. Andersson M (1984) The evolution of eusociality. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 15:165-189
3. Armitage SAO, Siva-Jothy MT (2005) Immune function responds to selection for cuticular color in Tenebrio molitor. Heredity 94:650-656
4. Balon EK (1981) Saltatory processes and altricial to precocial forms in the ontogeny of fishes. Am Zool 21:573-596
5. Balon EK (2002) Epigenetic processes, when natura non facit saltum becomes a myth, and alternative ontogenies a mechanism of evolution. Environ Biol Fish 65:1-35
6. Bell WJ, Roth LM, Nalepa CA (2007) Cockroaches: Ecology, behavior, and natural history. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
7. Blackburn DG, Evans HE (1986) Why there are no viviparous birds? Am Nat 128:165-190
8. Bonner JT (2006) Why size matters. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
9. Bordereau C (1985) The role of pheromones in caste differentiation. In:Watson JAL, Okot-Kotber BM, Noirot C (eds) Caste differentiation in social insects. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 221-226
10. Brown JL, Vleck CM (1998) Prolactin and helping in birds: Has natural selection strengthened helping behavior? Behav Ecol 9:541-545
11. Buchli H (1950) Recherche sur la fondation et le développement des nouvelles colonies chez le termite lucifuge (Reticulitermes lucifugus Ressi). Physiol Comp Oecol 2:145-160
12. Buchli HHR (1958) L'origine des castes et les potentialités ontogénétiques des termites européens du genre Reticulitermes Holmgren. Ann Sci Nat Zool (11)20:263-429
13. Alexander RM (1990) How did humans evolve? Reflections on the uniquely unique species. Univ Michigan Mus Zool Spec Publ 1:1-38
14. Andersson M (1984) The evolution of eusociality. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 15:165-189
15. Armitage SAO, Siva-Jothy MT (2005) Immune function responds to selection for cuticular color in Tenebrio molitor. Heredity 94:650-656
16. Balon EK (1981) Saltatory processes and altricial to precocial forms in the ontogeny of fishes. Am Zool 21:573-596
17. Balon EK (2002) Epigenetic processes, when natura non facit saltum becomes a myth, and alternative ontogenies a mechanism of evolution. Environ Biol Fish 65:1-35
18. Bell WJ, Roth LM, Nalepa CA (2007) Cockroaches: Ecology, behavior, and natural history. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
19. Blackburn DG, Evans HE (1986) Why there are no viviparous birds? Am Nat 128:165-190
20. Bonner JT (2006) Why size matters. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
21. Bordereau C (1985) The role of pheromones in caste differentiation. In:Watson JAL, Okot-Kotber BM, Noirot C (eds) Caste differentiation in social insects. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 221-226
22. Brown JL, Vleck CM (1998) Prolactin and helping in birds: Has natural selection strengthened helping behavior? Behav Ecol 9:541-545
23. Buchli H (1950) Recherche sur la fondation et le développement des nouvelles colonies chez le termite lucifuge (Reticulitermes lucifugus Ressi). Physiol Comp Oecol 2:145-160
24. Buchli HHR (1958) L'origine des castes et les potentialités ontogénétiques des termites européens du genre Reticulitermes Holmgren. Ann Sci Nat Zool (11)20:263-429
25. Buczkowski G, Wang C, Bennett G (2007) Immunomarking reveals food flow and feeding relationships in the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Environ Entomol 36:173-182
26. Burley NT, Johnson K (2002) The evolution of avian parental care. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 357:241-250
27. Calow P, Townsend CR (1981) Resource utilization in growth. In: Townsend CR, Calow P (eds) Physiological ecology: An evolutionary approach to resource use. Sinauer, Sunderland, pp 220-244
28. Carpenter KJ, Chow L, Keeling PJ (2009) Morphology, phylogeny, and diversity of Trichonympha (Parabasalia: Hypermastigida) of the wood feeding cockroach Cryptocercus punctulatus. J Eukaryot Microbiol 56:305-313
29. Case TJ (1978) On the evolution and adaptive significance of postnatal growth rates in the terrestrial vertebrates. Q Rev Biol 53:243-282
30. Cleveland LR, Hall SR, Sanders EP, Collier J (1934) The wood feeding roach Cryptocercus, its protozoa, and the symbiosis between protozoa and roach. Mem Am Acad Arts Sci 17:185-342
31. Clutton-Brock TH (1991) The evolution of parental care. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
32. Clutton-Brock TH, Gaynor D, Kansky R et al (1998) Costs of cooperative behavior in suricates (Suricata suricatta). Proc R Soc Lond B 265:185-190
33. Clutton-Brock TH, Godfray C (1991) Parental investment. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach. Blackwell, Boston, MA, pp 234-262
34. Cockburn A (2004) Mating systems and sexual conflict. In: Koenig WD, Dickenson JL (eds) Ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 81-101
35. Craig JL, Jamieson IG (1990) Pukeko: Different approaches and some different answers. In: Stacey PB, KoenigWD (eds) Cooperative breeding in birds: Long term studies of ecology and behavior. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 385-412
36. Daly M, Wilson M (1978) Sex, evolution, and behavior. Duxbury Press, North Scituate, RI
37. Danks HV (1992) Long life-cycles in insects. Can Entomol 124:167-187
38. Derrickson EM (1992) Comparative reproductive strategies of altricial and precocial eutherian mammals. Funct Ecol 6:57-65
39. Eggleton P, Beccaloni G, Inward D (2007) Response to Lo et al. Biol Lett 3:564-565
40. Farmer CG (2000) Parental care: The key to understanding endothermy and other convergent features in birds and mammals. Am Nat 155:326-334
41. Fong DW, Kane TC, Culver DC (1995) Vestigialization and loss of nonfunctional characters. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 26:249-268
42. Gill FB (1995) Ornithology. WH Freeman, New York, NY
43. Gillespie JP, Kanost MR, Trenczek T (1997) Biological mediators of insect immunity. Annu Rev Entomol 42:611-643
44. Grassé P-P (1952) Rôle des flagellés symbiotiques chez les Blattes et les Termites. Tijdschr Entomol 95:70-80
45. Grassé PP, Noirot C (1945) La transmission des flagellés symbiotiques et les aliments des termites. Bull Biol France Belg 79:273-297
46. Grassi B, Sandias A (1897) The constitution and development of the society of termites: Observations on their habits; with appendices on the parasitic protozoa of Termitidae, and on the Embiidae. Q J Microsc Soc 40:1-75
47. Guyer C, Slowinski JB (1993) Adaptive radiation and the topology of large phylogenies. Evolution 47:253-263
48. Hadley NF (1984) Cuticle: Ecological significance. In: Bereiter-Hahn J, Matoltsy AG, Richards KS (eds) Biology of the integument I. Invertebrates. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 685-702
49. Hajek AE, St. Leger RJ (1994) Interactions between fungal pathogens and insect hosts. Annu Rev Entomol 39:293-322
50. Hall BK (1998) Evolutionary developmental biology, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London
51. Hall AR, Colegrave N (2008) Decay of unused characters by selection and drift. J Evol Biol 21:610-617
52. Hall BK, Miyake T (1995) How do embryos measure time? In: McNamara KJ (ed) Evolutionary change and heterochrony. Wiley, Chichester, pp 3-20
53. Hatle JD, Borst DW, Juliano SA (2004) Plasticity and canalization in the control of reproduction in the lubber grasshopper. Integr Comp Biol 43:635-645
54. Haverty MI (1977) The proportion of soldiers in termite colonies: A list and a bibliography. Sociobiology 2:199-216
55. Heinsohn R, Cockburn A (1994) Helping is costly to young birds in cooperatively breeding whitewinged choughs. Proc R Soc Lond B 256:293-298
56. Heinsohn R, Cockburn A, Mulder RA (1990) Avian cooperative breeding: Old hypotheses and new direction. Trends Ecol Evol 5:403-407
57. Heinsohn R, Legge S (1999) The cost of helping. Trends Ecol Evol 14:53-57
58. Hensley FR (1993) Ontogenetic loss of phenotypic plasticity of age at metamorphosis in tadpoles. Ecology 74:2405-2412
59. Hentschel BT (1999) Complex life cycles in a variable environment: Predicting when the timing of metamorphosis shifts from resource dependent to developmentally fixed. Am Nat 154:549-558
60. Higashi M, Yamamura N, Abe T, Burns TP (1991) Why don't all termite species have a sterile worker caste? Proc R Soc Lond B 246:25-29
61. Hölldobler B, Wilson EO (2005) Eusociality: Origin and consequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:13367-13371
62. Hölldobler B, Wilson EO (2008) The superorganism. The beauty, elegance, and strangeness of insect societies. WW Norton & Co, New York, NY
63. Hopkins TL, Kramer KJ (1992) Insect cuticle sclerotization. Annu Rev Entomol 37:273-302
64. Horiuchi S, Yamamura N, Abe T (2002) Soldier production strategy in lower termites: From young instars or old instars? J Theor Biol 218:195-205
65. Huber I (1976) Evolutionary trends in Cryptocercus punctulatus (Blattaria: Cryptocercidae). J N Y Entomol Soc 84:166-168
66. Hunt JH (2007) The evolution of social wasps. Oxford University Press, Oxford
67. Ikeda-Ohtsubo W, Brune A (2009) Cospeciation of termite gut flagellates and their bacterial endosymbionts: Trichonympha species and 'Candidatus Endomicrobium trichonymphae'. Mol Ecol 18:332-342
68. Imms AD (1931) Recent advances in entomology. P Blakiston's Son & Co, Philadephia, PA
69. Inward D, Beccaloni G, Eggleton P (2007) Death of an order: A comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study confirms that termites are eusocial cockroaches. Biol Lett 3:331-335
70. Inward DJG, Vogler AP, Eggleton P (2007) A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of termites (Isoptera) illuminates key aspects of their evolutionary biology. Mol Phylogenet Evol 44: 953-967
71. Jacob F (1977) Evolution and tinkering. Science 196:1161-1166
72. Jamieson IG (1989) Behavioral heterochrony and the evolution of birds' helping at the nest: An unselected consequence of communal breeding? Am Nat 133:394-406
73. Johnston ML, Wheeler DE (2005) The role of storage proteins in colony-founding in termites. Insectes Soc 54:383-387
74. Kennedy CH (1947) Child labor of the termite society versus adult labor of the ant society. Sci Mon 65:309-324
75. Kidder GW (1937) The intestinal protozoa of the wood-feeding roach Panesthia. Parasitology 29:163-219
76. Kikukawa S, Tobe SS (1986) Critical periods for juvenile hormone sensitivity during larval life of female Diploptera punctata. J Insect Physiol 32:1035-1042
77. Klass K-D, Nalepa CA, Lo N (2008) Wood-feeding cockroaches as models for termite evolution (Insecta: Dictyoptera): Cryptocercus vs. Perisphaeria. Mol Phylogenet Evol 46:809-817
78. Kölliker M (2005) Ontogeny in the family. Behav Genet 35:7-18
79. Koshikawa S, Matsumoto T, Miura T (2002) Morphometric changes during soldier differentiation of the damp-wood termite Hodotermes japonica (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Insectes Soc 49: 245-250
80. Kupfer A, Müller H, AntoniazziMMet al (2006) Parental investment by skin feeding in a caecilian amphibian. Nature 440:926-929
81. LaFage JP, Nutting WL (1978) Nutrient dynamics of termites. In: Brian MV (ed) Production ecology of ants and termites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 165-232
82. Langen TA (2000) Prolonged offspring dependence and cooperative breeding in birds. Behav Ecol 11:367-377
83. Ligon JD, Burt DB (2004) Evolutionary origins. In: Koenig WD, Dickinson JL (eds) Ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 5-34
84. Lo N, Bandi C,Watanabe H et al (2003) Evidence for cocladogenesis between diverse dictyopteran lineages and their intracellular endosymbionts. Mol Biol Evol 20:907-913
85. Lo N, Engel MS, Cameron S et al (2007) Save Isoptera. A comment on Inward et al. Biol Lett 3:562-563
86. Lo N, Tokuda G, Watanabe H et al (2000) Evidence from multiple gene sequences indicated that termites evolved from wood-feeding cockroaches. Curr Biol 10:801-804
87. Lüscher M (1953) The termite and the cell. Sci Am 188:74-78
88. Machida M, Kitade O, Miura T, Matsumoto T (2001) Nitrogen recycling through proctodeal trophallaxis in the Japanese damp-wood termite Hodotermes japonica (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Insectes Soc 48:52-56
89. Maekawa K (1997) Molecular phylogeny and ecology of the wood-feeding cockroaches. Master of Science Thesis, Department of Biology. University of Tokyo, Tokyo
90. Maekawa K, Lo N, Rose HA, Matsumoto T (2003) The evolution of soil-burrowing cockroaches (Blattaria: Blaberidae) from wood-burrowing ancestors following an invasion of the latter from Asia into Australia. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:1301-1307
91. Maekawa K,Matsumoto T, Nalepa CA (2008) Social biology of the wood-feeding cockroach genus Salganea (Dictyoptera: Blaberidae: Panesthiinae): Did ovoviviparity prevent the evolution of eusociality in the lineage? Insectes Soc 55:107-114
92. Matsuda R (1979) Abnormal metamorphosis and arthropod evolution. In: Gupta AP (ed) Arthopod phylogeny. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, pp 135-256
93. May RM, Rubenstein DI (1984) Reproductive strategies. In: Austin CR, Short RV (eds) Reproduction in mammals 4: Reproductive fitness. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1-23
94. McKinney ML, Gittleman JL (1995) Ontogeny and phylogeny: Tinkering with covariation in life history, morphology, and behaviour. In: McNamara KJ (ed) Evolutionary change and heterochrony. Wiley, Chichester, pp 21-47
95. Metcalf NB, Monaghan P (2001) Compensation for a bad start: Grow now, pay later? Trends Ecol Evol 16:254-260
96. Minelli A (2003) The development of animal form: Ontogeny, morphology, and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
97. Minelli A (2009) Perspectives in animal phylogeny and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
98. Mitter C, Farrell B,Weigmann B (1988) The phylogenetic study of adaptive zones: Has phytophagy promoted insect diversification? Am Nat 132:107-128
99. Moczek AP (2008) On the origins of novelty in development and evolution. BioEssays 30:432-447
100. Nalepa CA (1988) Cost of parental care in Cryptocercus punctulatus Scudder (Dictyoptera: Cryptocercidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 23:135-140
101. Nalepa CA (1990) Early development of nymphs and establishment of hindgut symbiosis in Cryptocercus punctulatus (Dictyoptera: Cryptocercidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 83: 786-789
102. Nalepa CA (1991) Ancestral transfer of symbionts between cockroaches and termites: An unlikely scenario. Proc R Soc Lond B 246:185-189
103. Nalepa CA (1994) Nourishment and the evolution of termite eusociality. In: Hunt JH, Nalepa CA (eds) Nourishment and evolution in insect societies. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp 57-104
104. Koshikawa S, Matsumoto T, Miura T (2002) Morphometric changes during soldier differentiation of the damp-wood termite Hodotermes japonica (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Insectes Soc 49: 245-250
105. Kupfer A, Müller H, AntoniazziMMet al (2006) Parental investment by skin feeding in a caecilian amphibian. Nature 440:926-929
106. LaFage JP, Nutting WL (1978) Nutrient dynamics of termites. In: Brian MV (ed) Production ecology of ants and termites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 165-232
107. Langen TA (2000) Prolonged offspring dependence and cooperative breeding in birds. Behav Ecol 11:367-377
108. Ligon JD, Burt DB (2004) Evolutionary origins. In: Koenig WD, Dickinson JL (eds) Ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 5-34
109. Lo N, Bandi C,Watanabe H et al (2003) Evidence for cocladogenesis between diverse dictyopteran lineages and their intracellular endosymbionts. Mol Biol Evol 20:907-913
110. Lo N, Engel MS, Cameron S et al (2007) Save Isoptera. A comment on Inward et al. Biol Lett 3:562-563
111. Lo N, Tokuda G, Watanabe H et al (2000) Evidence from multiple gene sequences indicated that termites evolved from wood-feeding cockroaches. Curr Biol 10:801-804
112. Lüscher M (1953) The termite and the cell. Sci Am 188:74-78
113. Machida M, Kitade O, Miura T, Matsumoto T (2001) Nitrogen recycling through proctodeal trophallaxis in the Japanese damp-wood termite Hodotermes japonica (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Insectes Soc 48:52-56
114. Maekawa K (1997) Molecular phylogeny and ecology of the wood-feeding cockroaches. Master of Science Thesis, Department of Biology. University of Tokyo, Tokyo
115. Maekawa K, Lo N, Rose HA, Matsumoto T (2003) The evolution of soil-burrowing cockroaches (Blattaria: Blaberidae) from wood-burrowing ancestors following an invasion of the latter from Asia into Australia. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:1301-1307
116. Maekawa K,Matsumoto T, Nalepa CA (2008) Social biology of the wood-feeding cockroach genus Salganea (Dictyoptera: Blaberidae: Panesthiinae): Did ovoviviparity prevent the evolution of eusociality in the lineage? Insectes Soc 55:107-114
117. Matsuda R (1979) Abnormal metamorphosis and arthropod evolution. In: Gupta AP (ed) Arthopod phylogeny. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, pp 135-256
118. May RM, Rubenstein DI (1984) Reproductive strategies. In: Austin CR, Short RV (eds) Reproduction in mammals 4: Reproductive fitness. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1-23
119. McKinney ML, Gittleman JL (1995) Ontogeny and phylogeny: Tinkering with covariation in life history, morphology, and behaviour. In: McNamara KJ (ed) Evolutionary change and heterochrony. Wiley, Chichester, pp 21-47
120. Metcalf NB, Monaghan P (2001) Compensation for a bad start: Grow now, pay later? Trends Ecol Evol 16:254-260
121. Minelli A (2003) The development of animal form: Ontogeny, morphology, and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
122. Minelli A (2009) Perspectives in animal phylogeny and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
123. Mitter C, Farrell B,Weigmann B (1988) The phylogenetic study of adaptive zones: Has phytophagy promoted insect diversification? Am Nat 132:107-128
124. Moczek AP (2008) On the origins of novelty in development and evolution. BioEssays 30:432-447
125. Nalepa CA (1988) Cost of parental care in Cryptocercus punctulatus Scudder (Dictyoptera: Cryptocercidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 23:135-140
126. Nalepa CA (1990) Early development of nymphs and establishment of hindgut symbiosis in Cryptocercus punctulatus (Dictyoptera: Cryptocercidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 83: 786-789
127. Nalepa CA (1991) Ancestral transfer of symbionts between cockroaches and termites: An unlikely scenario. Proc R Soc Lond B 246:185-189
128. Nalepa CA (1994) Nourishment and the evolution of termite eusociality. In: Hunt JH, Nalepa CA (eds) Nourishment and evolution in insect societies. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp 57-104
129. Price T, Langen T (1992) Evolution of correlated characters. Trends Ecol Evol 7:307-310
130. Raff RA (1996) The shape of life: Genes, development, and the evolution of animal form. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
131. Raff RA (2008) Origins of the other metazoan body plans: The evolution of larval forms. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 363:1473-1479
132. Raina A, Osbrink W, Park YI (2004) Nymphs of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): Aspects of formation and transformation. Ann Entomol Soc Am 97:757-764
133. Reilly SM (1994) The ecological morphology of metamorphosis: Heterochrony and the evolution of feeding mechanisms in salamanders. In: Wainright PC, Reilly SM (eds) Ecological morphology. Integrative organismal biology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp 319-338
134. Ricklefs RE (1974) Energetics of reproduction in birds. In: Paynter RA (ed) Avian energetics 15. Nuttall Ornithol Club, Cambridge, MA, pp 152-297
135. Ricklefs RE (1983) Avian postnatal development. J Avian Biol 7:1-83
136. Roisin Y (1999) Philopatric reproduction, a prime mover in the evolution of termite sociality? Insectes Soc 46:297-305
137. Roisin Y (2000) Diversity and evolution of caste patterns. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M (eds) Termites: Evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 95-119
138. Roisin Y (2006) Life history, life types and caste evolution in termites. In: Kipyatkov VE (ed) Life cycles in social insects: Behaviour, ecology and evolution. St. Petersburg University Press, St. Petersburg, pp 85-95
139. Rollo CD (1986) A test of the principle of allocation using 2 sympatric species of cockroaches. Ecology 67:616-628
140. Rombough P (2006) Developmental costs and the partitioning of metabolic energy. In: Warburton SJ et al (eds) Comparative developmental physiology. Contributions, tools, and trends. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 99-123
141. Rosengaus RB, Maxmen AB, Coates LE, Traniello JFA (1998) Disease resistance: A benefit of sociality in the dampwood termite Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 44:125-134
142. Roux EA, Korb J (2004) Evolution of eusociality and the soldier caste in termites: A validation of the intrinsic benefit hypothesis. J Evol Biol 17:869-875
143. Rugg D, Rose HA (1990) Nymphal development and adult longevity of the Australian woodfeeding cockroach Panesthia cribrata (Dictyoptera: Blaberidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 83:766-775
144. Russell AF, Langmore NE, Cockburn A et al (2007) Reduced egg investment can conceal helper effects in cooperatively breeding birds. Science 317:941-944
145. Sands WA (1965) Alate development and colony foundation in five species of Trinervitermes (Isoptera, Nasutitermitinae) in Nigeria, West Africa. Insectes Soc 12:117-130
146. Scholtz OI, Macleod N, Eggleton P (2008) Termite defence strategies: A reassessment of Prestwich's classification and an examination of the evolution of defence morphology using extended eigenshape anayses of head morphology. Zool J Linn Soc 153:631-650
147. Scriber JM, Slansky F Jr (1981) The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Annu Rev Entomol 26:183-211
148. Seamans L, Woodruff LC (1939) Some factors influencing the number of molts of the German roach. J Kans Entomol Soc 12:73-76
149. Seelinger G, Seelinger U (1983) On the social organization, alarm and fighting in the primitive cockroach Cryptocercus punctulatus. Z Tierpsychol 61:315-333
150. Shaw G, Renfree MB (2006) Parturition and perfect prematurity: Birth in marsupials. Aust J Zool 54:139-149
151. Shimada K, Maekawa K (2008) Correlation between social structure and nymphal wooddigestion ability in the xylophagous cockroaches Salganea esakii and Panesthia angustipennis. Sociobiology 52:417-427
152. Smith KK (2001) Early development of the neural plate, neural crest and facial region of marsupials. J Anat 199:121-131
153. Spicer JI, Burggren WW (2003) Development of physiological regulatory systems: Altering the timing of crucial events. Zoology 106:91-99
154. Staal GB (1986) Anti-juvenile hormone agents. Annu Rev Entomol 31:391-429
155. Starck JM (1993) Evolution of avian ontogenies. Curr Ornithol 10:275-366
156. Sugumaran M (2002) Comparative biochemistry of eumelanogenesis and the protective roles of phenoloxidase and melanin in insects. Pigment Cell Res 15:2-9
157. Taborsky M (1984) Broodcare helpers in the cichlid fish Lamprologus richardi: Their costs and benefits. Anim Behav 32:1236-1252
158. Tallamy DW (2005) Egg dumping in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 50:347-370
159. Tanaka K (1981) Regulation of body size during larval development in the German cockroach Blattella germanica. J Insect Physiol 27:587-592
160. Temrin H, Tullberg BS (1995) A phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of avian mating systems in relation to altricial and precocial young. Behav Ecol 6:296-307
161. Thomas G, Székely T (2005) Evolutionary pathways in shorebird breeding systems: Sexual conflict, parental care, and chick development. Evolution 59:2222-2230
162. Thompson GJ, Kitade O, Lo N, Crozier RH (2000) Phylogenetic evidence for a single, ancestral origin of a 'true' worker caste in termites. J Evol Biol 13:869-881
163. Thorne BL, Breisch NL, Muscedere ML (2003) Evolution of eusociality and the soldier caste in termites: Influence of intraspecific competition and accelerated inheritance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:12808-12813
164. Traniello JFA, Rosengaus RB, Savoie K (2002) The development of immunity in a social insect: Evidence for the group facilitation of disease resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 6838-6842
165. True JR, Haag ES (2001) Developmental system drift and flexibility in evolutionary trajectories. Evol Dev 3:109-119
166. Walser ES (1977) Maternal behaviour in mammals. Symp Zool Soc Lond 41:313-331
167. Ware JL, Litman J, Klass K-D, Spearman LA (2008) Relationships among major lineages of Dictyoptera: The effect of outgroup selection on dictyopteran tree topology. Syst Entomol 33:429-450
168. Wcislo WT (1989) Behavioral environments and evolutionary change. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:137-169
169. Wesolowski T (1994) On the origin of parental care and the early evolution of male and female parental roles in birds. Am Nat 143:39-58
170. West MJ, Alexander RD (1963) Sub-social behavior in a burrowing cricket Anurogryllus muticus (De Geer). Ohio J Sci 63:19-24
171. West-Eberhard MJ (1987) The epigenetical origins of insect sociality. In: Eder J, Rembold H (eds) Chemistry and biology of social insects. Verlag J. Peperny, München, pp 369-372
172. West-Eberhard MJ (2005) Phenotypic accommodation: Adaptive innovation due to developmental plasticity. J Exp Zool 304B:610-618
173. WheelerWM(1928) The social insects. Their origin and evolution. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York, NY
174. Williams GC (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
175. Wolf JB, Brodie ED III (1998) The coadaptation of parental and offspring characters. Evolution 52:299-308
176. Woodrow RJ, Grace JK, Nelson LJ, Haverty MI (2000) Modification of cuticular hydrocarbons of Cryptotermes brevis (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) in response to temperature and relative humidity. Environ Entomol 29:1100-1107
177. Yanagawa A, Shimizu S (2007) Resistance of the termite, Coptotermes formosanus to Metarhizium anisopliae due to grooming. BioControl 52:75-85
178. Zeveloff SI, Boyce MS (1982) Why human neonates are so altricial. Am Nat 120:537-542