Tracing the school-to-prison pipeline from zero-tolerance policies to juvenile justice dispositions

Georgetown Law Journal

Volumn 102, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 1251-1277

  Curtis, Aaron J ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY LAW CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84899795587     PISSN: 00168092     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. Ronnie Casella, Punishing Dangerousness Through Preventive Detention: Illustrating the Institutional Link Between School and Prison, NEW DIRECTIONS FOR YOUTH DEV., Fall 2003, at 55, 66.
2. Lawyers' Comm. for Civil Rights Under Law, School Pushout, BREAKING THE SCHOOL-TO-PRISON PIPELINE, http://www.breakingthepipeline.org/schoolpushout/ (last visited Feb. 10, 2014).
3. See Am. Psychological Ass'n Zero Tolerance Task Force, Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools? An Evidentiary Review and Recommendations, 63 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 852, 852 (2008)
4. Tona M. Boyd, Confronting Racial Disparity: Legislative Responses to the School-to-Prison Pipeline, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 571, 573 (2009).
5. PHILLIP KAUFMAN ET AL., U.S. DEP'T OF EDUC. & U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, INDICATORS OF SCHOOL CRIME AND SAFETY, 1999 app. A, at 117 (1999).
6. Russ Skiba & Reece Peterson, The Dark Side of Zero Tolerance: Can Punishment Lead to Safe Schools?, 80 PHI DELTA KAPPAN 372, 373 (1999); see also Am. Psychological Ass'n Zero Tolerance Task Force, supra note 5, at 852.
7. Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-382, 108 Stat. 3907 (1994) (codified as amended at 20 U.S.C. § 7151 (2006)); see also Paul J. Hirschfield, Preparing for Prison? The Criminalization of School Discipline in the USA, 12 THEORETICAL CRIMINOLOGY 79, 82 (2008).
8. Am. Psychological Ass'n Zero Tolerance Task Force, supra note 5, at 853. See generally T. Nikki Eckland, The Safe Schools Act: Legal and ADR Responses to Violence in Schools, 31 URB. LAW. 309 (1999).
9. Vito A. Gagliardi, Jr., In Defense of Zero Tolerance, 164 N.J. L.J., May 21, 2001, at 1, 3, available at http://208.112.40.29/data/articles/In-Defense- of-Zero-Tolerance-147.pdf; see also Eckland, supra note 17, at 309.
10. Am. Psychological Ass'n Zero Tolerance Task Force, supra note 5, at 854; Eckland, supra note 17, at 316; See Zero Tolerance and School Safety, NAT 'L SCH. SAFETY & SEC. SERVS., http://www.schoolsecurity.org/trends/zero- tolerance (last visited Oct. 5, 2013).
11. THOMAS D. SNYDER ET AL., U.S. DEP'T OF EDUC. & U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, INDICATORS OF SCHOOL CRIME AND SAFETY: 2012, at 11 fig.2.1 (2013).
12. Lawyers' Comm. for Civil Rights Under Law, supra note 3; Locating the School-to-Prison Pipeline, AM. CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, https://www.aclu.org/ sites/default/files/images/asset-upload-file966-35553.pdf (last visited Oct. 5, 2013).
13. AM. CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, HARD LESSONS: SCHOOL RESOURCE OFFICER PROGRAMS AND SCHOOL-BASED ARRESTS IN THREE CONNECTICUT TOWNS 10 (2008).
14. Chance W. Lewis et al., African American Male Discipline Patterns and School District Responses Resulting Impact on Academic Achievement: Implications for Urban Educators and Policy Makers, 1 J. AFR. AM. MALES EDUC. 7, 14-15 (2010).
15. Russell J. Skiba et al., The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment, 34 URB. REV. 317, 326 (2002).
16. Linda M. Raffaele Mendez, Predictors of Suspension and Negative School Outcomes: A Longitudinal Investigation, NEW DIRECTIONS FOR YOUTH DEV., Fall 2003, at 17, 25.
17. Barry C. Feld, Justice By Geography: Urban, Suburban, and Rural Variations in Juvenile Justice Administration, 82 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 156, 174 (1991).
18. ADVANCEMENT PROJECT & THE CIVIL RIGHTS PROJECT, OPPORTUNITIES SUSPENDED: THE DEVASTATING CONSEQUENCES OF ZERO TOLERANCE AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 49 (2000), available at http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12- education/school-discipline/opportunities-suspended-the-devastating- consequences-of-zero-tolerance-and-school-discipline-policies/.
19. Student Arrested for "Passing Gas," at Fla. School, NBCNEWS.COM (Nov. 24, 2008, 9:47 PM), http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27898395.Ux0qeV5FrC5.
20. 12-Year-Old Arrested for Doodling at Desk, CBSNEWS.COM (Feb. 5, 2010, 9:24 AM), http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-201-162-6177041.html
21. NYC Student, 12, Arrested for Doodling on Desk, FOXNEWS.COM (Feb. 8, 2010), http://www.foxnews.com/story/2010/02/08/nyc-student-12-arrested-for- doodling-on-desk/
22. Stephanie Chen, Girl's Arrest for Doodling Raises Concerns About Zero Tolerance, CNN.COM (Feb. 18, 2010, 10:22 AM), http://www.cnn.com/2010/CRIME/02/ 18/new.york.doodle.arrest/index.html.
23. Allison Klein, Va. Student Displayed Toy Gun on School Bus, Police Say, WASH. POST (Feb. 5, 2013), http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-05/local/ 36758640-1-toy-gun-orange-tip-school-bus
24. Derrick Perkins, 10-Year-Old Student Arrested for Possession of a Toy Gun, ALEXANDRIA TIMES (Feb. 5, 2013, 10:58 AM), http://alextimes.com/2013/02/10- year-old-student-arrested-for-possession-of-a-toy-gun.
25. Kevin Dolak, W. Va. Teen Arrested After "Almost Inciting Riot," Wearing NRA Shirt to School, ABCNEWS.COM (Apr. 22, 2013), http://abcnews.go. com/US/west-virginia-teen-arrested-wearing-nra-shirt-school/story?id=19017896 ("Logan county schools' dress code, which is posted online, prohibits clothing and accessories that display profanity, violence, discriminatory messages or sexual language, along with ads for alcohol, tobacco or drugs. There is no mention of the NRA or guns.,"))
26. See Pam Ramsey, Student Charged After Refusing to Remove NRA Shirt, HUFFINGTON POST (Apr. 21, 2013, 6:19 PM), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/ 21/student-nra-shirt-n-3128715.html
27. Charge Dismissed Against Student Who Refused to Remove NRA Shirt, FOXNEWS.COM (June 28, 2013), http://www.foxnews.com/us/2013/06/28/charge- dropped-against-student-who-refused-to-remove-nra-shirt.
28. Richard E. Behrman et al., The Juvenile Court: Analysis and Recommendations, FUTURE CHILD., Winter 1996, at 4, 6.
29. ANNE L. STAHL, U.S. DEP T OF JUSTICE, PETITIONED STATUS OFFENSE CASES IN JUVENILE COURTS, 2004 (2008), available at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ ojjdp/fs200802.pdf. This percentage was an increase from 29% of formally petitioned status-offense cases in 1995. Id.
30. U.S. Dep't of Justice, COPS in Schools (CIS), COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING SERVICES, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=54 (last visited Oct. 5, 2013).
31. Steven C. Teske & J. Brian Huff, When Did Making Adults Mad Become a Crime? The Court's Role in Dismantling the School-to-Prison Pipeline, JUV. & FAM. JUST. TODAY, Winter 2011, at 14, 16.
32. See, e.g., Donna M. Bishop & Charles E. Frazier, Race Effects in Juvenile Justice Decision-Making: Findings of a Statewide Analysis, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 392, 396 (1996)
33. Michael O. Maume, Reid C. Toth & Jeffrey W. Spears, Race in Context: The Impact of Structural Factors on Racial Differences in Juvenile Court Processing, 32 INT'L REV. MOD. SOC. 53, 61-63 (2006).
34. Daniel P. Mears, Sentencing Guidelines and the Transformation of Juvenile Justice in the 21st Century, 18 J. CONTEMP. CRIM. JUST. 6, 8 (2002).
35. Barry C. Feld, Abolish the Juvenile Court: Youthfulness, Criminal Responsibility, and Sentencing Policy, 88 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 68, 71-72 (1997).
36. Feld, supra note 48, at 160 ("The traditional juvenile court's emphasis on rehabilitating offenders fostered judicial discretion, procedural informality, and organizational diversity.,"); Sandra B. Simkins et al., The School to Prison Pipeline for Girls: The Role of Physical and Sexual Abuse, 24 CHILD. LEGAL RTS. J. 56, 57 (2004)
37. see also Roxanne Lieb & Megan E. Brown, Washington State's Solo Path: Juvenile Sentencing Guidelines, 11 FED. SENT'G REP. 273, 273-74 (1999) ("The picture emerged of a juvenile court currently operating with extensive discretion and few checks and balances, where decision-making occurred behind closed doors.,").
38. Behrman et al., supra note 59, at 7; Linda F. Giardino, Note, Statutory Rhetoric: The Reality Behind Juvenile Justice Policies in America, 5 J.L. & POL'Y 223, 275 (1996).
39. STATE OF WASH., CASELOAD FORECAST COUNCIL, 2012 WASHINGTON STAT E JUVENILE DISPOSITION GUIDELINES MANUAL 1, 33 (2013).
40. Id.; Lieb & Brown, supra note 91, at 275. Under the Delaware dispositional guidelines, the presumptive level of placement is based on "the instant offense for which the juvenile is adjudicated,", "aggravating factors including the juvenile's prior record of delinquency," and "mitigating factors including the juvenile's individual characteristics and needs.," Dep't of Servs. for Children, Youth, & Their Families, Dispositional Guidelines for Juveniles, STAT E DEL., http://kids.delaware.gov/yrs/yrs-dispositional-guid.shtml (last updated Mar. 13, 2012).
41. Daniel P. Mears, The Sociology of Sentencing: Reconceptualizing Decisionmaking Processes and Outcomes, 32 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 667, 668 (1998); Giardino, supra note 111, at 225, 275-76.
42. See, e.g., TEX. FAM. CODE ANN. §§ 59.003. 005 (West 2008); Lieb & Brown, supra note 91, at 275. Differences in dispositional approaches may also be caused by the availability of resources (or lack thereof) in a geographic area. For example, in the 1990s, then-Governor Christine Todd Whitman of New Jersey explained, "A judge in one county has many options to craft appropriate orders for young offenders. In the next county over,⋯ a judge may have very few options between probation and incarceration.," RICHARD A. MENDEL, NO PLACE FOR KIDS: THE CASE FOR REDUCING JUVENILE INCARCERATION 14 (2011).
43. Jessica R. Kendall, Juvenile Status Offenses: Treatment and Early Intervention, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE BULL. NO. 29 (A.B.A. Div. for Pub. Educ., Chicago, Ill.), 2007, at 2, available at http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/ aba/migrated/publiced/tab29.authcheckdam.pdf.
44. CHARLES PUZZANCHERA, NAT 'L CTR. FOR JUVENILE JUSTICE, TRENDS IN THE JUSTICE SYSTEM'S RESPONSE TO STATUS OFFENDING: OJJDP BRIEFING PAPER (2007), available at http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/child/ PublicDocuments/adolescent-15.authcheckdam.pdf.
45. Robert Schwartz & Len Rieser, Zero Tolerance as Mandatory Sentencing, in ZERO TOLERANCE: RESISTING THE DRIVE FOR PUNISHMENT IN OUR SCHOOLS 126, 133 (William Ayers, Bernardine Dohrn & Rick Ayers eds., 2001).
46. JNAT L COUNCIL OF JUVENILE & FAMILY COURT JUDGES, JUDICIAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION OF STATUS OFFENDERS IN THE UNITED STATES WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE 2 (2012), available at http://www.ncjfcj.org/sites/default/files/DSO-Issues-Bulletin-2012-FINAL- CORRECTED.pdf.
47. CHILDREN'S DEE FUND, AMERICA'S CRADLE TO PRISON PIPELINE 127 (2007), available at http://www.childrensdefense.org/child-research-data-publications/ data/cradle-prison-pipeline-report-2007-full-highres.html.
48. See, e.g., STATE OF WASH., CASELOAD FORECAST COUNCIL, supra note 122, at 1, 33; UTAH SENTENCING COMM'N, JUVENILE SENTENCING GUIDELINES 1 (2004), available at http://www.sentencing.state.ut.us/Guidelines/Juvenile/ JuvenileManual2004.pdf; Dep't of Servs. for Children, Youth, & Their Families, supra note 123.
49. STAHL, supra note 60 (noting that courts ordered probation in 61% of adjudicated truancy cases in 2004); See SARAH LIVSEY, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY PROBATION CASELOAD, 2009 (2012), available at http://www.ncjj.org/pdf/Livsey-JuvDelinquencyProbation09.pdf (noting that courts ordered probation for 61% of adjudicated person offenses and 53% of public order offenses).
50. SARAH HOCKENBERRY, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, JUVENILES IN RESIDENTIAL PLACEMENT, 2010, at 9-10 (2013), available at http://www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/241060. pdf.
51. JUSTICE POLICY INST., COMMON GROUND: LESSONS LEARNED FROM FIVE STATES THAT REDUCED JUVENILE CONFINEMENT BY MORE THAN HALF 10 (2013), available at http://www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/ commonground-online.pdf.
52. See generally Sara Mogulescu & Gaspar Caro, Making Court the Last Resort: A New Focus for Supporting Families in Crisis, 24 FED. SENT'G REP. 30 (2011).
53. NICHOLAS READ & STEPHANIE LAMPRON, SUPPORTING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH SOUND BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SCHOOLS AND JUVENILE JUSTICE FACILITIES: ASPOTLIGHT ON POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORTS (PBIS) 5 (2012), available at http://www.neglected-delinquent.org/sites/default/files/ docs/SupportingStudentAchievement.pdf
54. Positive Behavior Intervention and Support, CHARLOTTE-MECKLENBURG SCHOOLS, http://www.cms.k12.nc.us/cmsdepartments/pbis/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 5, 2013).
55. CMTY. ASSET DEV. RE-DEFINING EDUC. ET AL., REDEFINING DIGNITY IN OUR SCHOOLS: A SHADOW REPORT ON SCHOOL-WIDE POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT IMPLEMENTATION IN SOUTH LOS ANGELES, 2007-2010, at 8 (2010), available at http://www.cadre-la. org/core/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/4488-RedefDignity-FullLengthReport-FINAL. pdf.
56. Hank Bohanon et al., Schoolwide Application of Positive Behavior Support in an Urban High School: A Case Study, 8 J. POSITIVE BEHAV. INTERVENTIONS 131, 140 (2006).
57. Other positive approaches to student behavior in schools have yielded similar outcomes. SHARON MIHALIC ET AL., U.S. DEP T OF JUSTICE, BLUEPRINTS FOR VIOLENCE PREVENTION 29-40 (2004), available at http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ ojjdp/204274.pdf. (discussing various programs that focus on reinforcing positive behaviors and that have been shown to reduce delinquency in schools).
58. Thomas Poch, What's New in Alternative Sentencing Programs for Teenagers, 74 CLEARING HOUSE 60, 61 (2000).
59. HAMILTON FISH INST. ON SCH. & CMTY. VIOLENCE, YOUTH COURTS: AN EMPIRICAL UPDATE AND ANALYSIS OF FUTURE ORGANIZATIONAL AND RESEARCH NEEDS 9 (2008), available at http://www.youthcourt.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/NAYC- GWU-Evaluation-Study-2008.pdf.
60. JEFFREY A. BUTTS ET AL., THE IMPACT OF TEEN COURT ON YOUNG OFFENDERS 27 (2002), available at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410457.pdf.
61. LANE CNTY. DEP'T OF YOUTH SERVS., YOUTH COURTS PROGRAM EVALUATION 23 (2004), available at http://www.lanecounty.org/Departments/HHS/YS/Documents/ TeenCourtEval.pdf.
62. JEFFREY A. BUTTS & JANEEN BUCK, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, TEEN COURTS: A FOCUS ON RESEARCH 3 (2000), available at http://www.youthcourt.net/wp-content/ uploads/2010/05/183472.pdf. The eligibility requirements of youth-court programs may have changed since these data were collected, but the author has been unable to find more recent statistics.
63. Peter Greenwood, Prevention and Intervention Programs for Juvenile Offenders, 18 FUTURE CHILD. 185, 198 (2008).
64. Donald A. Gordon, Karen Graves & Jack Arbuthnot, The Effect of Functional Family Therapy for Delinquents on Adult Criminal Behavior, 22 CRIM. JUST. & BEHAV. 60, 67 (1995).
65. NAT 'L COUNCIL OF JUVENILE & FAMILY COURT JUDGES, JUVENILE JUSTICE MODEL COURTS (2010), available at http://www.ncjfcj.org/sites/default/files/ Juvenile-Justice-Model-Courts-Brochure.pdf.
66. NAT 'L COUNCIL OF JUVENILE & FAMILY COURT JUDGES, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY GUIDELINES: IMPROVING COURT PRACTICE IN JUVENILE DELINQUENCY CASES 134 (2005), available at http://www.ncjfcj.org/sites/default/files/ juveniledelinquencyguidelinescompressed[1].pdf.
67. The ACLU of Maryland applauded the passage of this bill as a "step closer to ensuring we can rehabilitate all youth in our juvenile justice system and ending the harmful practice of warehousing teens in the adult criminal justice system.," Press Release, ACLU of Maryland, ACLU Hails Passage of Bill to Reduce Youth Incarceration (Apr. 9, 2013), available at http://www.aclu-md.org/press-room/127.