Ex Utero: Live human fetal research and the films of Davenport Hooker

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 88, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 132-160

  Wilson, Emily K ^a,b  

^a CTR Supporting Defense POW MIA Accounting Agency Partnerships and Innovation Directorate   (United States)

^b National Museum of Health and Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomedical ethics; Fetal imagery; Fetal research; History of embryology; Medical film; Therapeutic abortion

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT; ETHICS; FETAL RESEARCH; FETUS DEATH; FETUS MOVEMENT; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; PHYSIOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

ABORTED FETUS; FETAL MOVEMENT; FETAL RESEARCH; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MOTION PICTURES AS TOPIC; NONTHERAPEUTIC HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; PENNSYLVANIA;

EID: 84899152529     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2014.0002     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. John F. Ptak, "What the Hell Is This? Living Human Fetal Experimentation, 1939," Ptak Science Books blog, December 6, 2010, http://longstreet.typepad.com/thesciencebookstore/2010/12/what-the-hell-is-this-human-fetal-experimentation-1938.html.
2. Mark Frauenfelder, "Horrifc Medical Booklet from 1939: Living Human Fetal Experimentation," Boing Boing blog, December 6, 2010, http://boingboing.net/2010/12/06/horrifc-medical-boo.html.
3. Though Hooker does not make the distinction, those from conception through eight weeks are more accurately referred to as "embryos" and those from nine weeks until birth as "fetuses." Two conventions exist for prenatal ages: fertilization age, which is calculated from the date of conception; and menstrual age, which is calculated from last menstrual period and is normally two weeks greater than fertilization age. This article follows Hooker's inclusive sense of the term "fetus" and his use of menstrual instead of fertilization ages.
4. Rosalind Pollak Petchesky, "Fetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Feminist Stud. 13, no. 2 (1987): 263-92+269-70
5. Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993)
6. Paul Ramsey, The Ethics of Fetal Research (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975)
7. Sara Dubow, Ourselves Unborn: A History of the Fetus in Modern America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)
8. Rickie Solinger, Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998);
9. Kathryn Pyne Addelson, "The Emergence of the Fetus," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 26-42
10. Monica J. Casper, The Making of the Unborn Patient: A Social Anatomy of Fetal Surgery (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998)
11. Lynn M. Morgan, Icons of Life: A Cultural History of Human Embryos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 201.
12. Morgan, Icons of Life (n. 4), 201. In experimental studies, the term "subject" is often applied to live human and nonhu-man research materials alike. In order to avoid confusion with concepts such as subjectivity or with attributions of consciousness, sentience, or agency, I generally refer to the human fetuses in Hooker's study instead as "materials," as "specimens," or simply as "fetuses."
13. William Preyer, Specielle Physiologie des Embryo (Leipzig: Grieben, 1885).
14. George E. Coghill, Anatomy and the Problem of Behavior (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929).
15. Angulo, Aw and Gonzalez, and W. Armando, "The Prenatal Development of Behavior in the Albino Rat," J. Comp. Neurol. 55 (1932): 395-442
16. William F. Windle and Albert M. Griffn, "Observations on Embryonic and Fetal Movements of the Cat," J. Comp. Neurol. 52, no. 1 (1931): 149-188
17. Leonard Carmichael, "An Experimental Study in the Prenatal Guinea-pig of the Origin and Development of Refexes and Patterns of Behavior in Relation to the Stimulation of Specifc Receptor Areas during the Period of Active Fetal Life," Genet. Psychol. Monogr. 16 (1934): 337-491.
18. Erbkam, A "Lebhafte Bewegungen Eines Vier Monatlichen Foetus," Neue Zeitschrift für Geburtskunde 5 (1837): 324-326.
19. Bolaffo M and G. Artom, "Richerche sulla Fisiologia del Sistema del Feto Umano," Archivio di Scienze Biologiche 5 (1924): 457-487.
20. Mieczysław Minkowski, "Neurobiologische Studien am Menschlichen Foetus," Abder-halden's Handbuch der Biologischen Arbeitsmethoden 253 (1928): 511-618.
21. Scott Curtis, Tangible as Tissue': Arnold Gesell, Infant Behavior, and Film Analysis, Sci. Context 24, no. 3 (2011): 417-442+420-422.
22. Medical cinematography became a substantial method of data collection, documentation, and dissemination across biological disciplines in the early twentieth century.
23. See also Hannah Landecker, "Microcinematography and the History of Science on Film," Isis 97 (2006): 121-132.
24. John B. Watson, Studies upon the Behavior of the Human Infant: Experimental Investigation of Babies (Chicago: C. H. Stoelting, 1919)
25. Arnold Gesell, An Atlas of Infant Behavior (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1934).
26. Garland E. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century (New York: John Wiley, 1975), 18-19
27. Adele E. Clarke, "Research Materials and Reproductive Science in the United States, 1910-1940," in Physiology in the American Context, 1850-1940, ed. Gerald L. Geison (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1987), 323-350+324-325.
28. Davenport Hooker, "Amoeboid Movement in the Corial Melanophores of Rana," Am. J. Anat. 16, no. 2 (1914): 237-250. Hooker was the frst Ph.D. graduate under biologist Ross G. Harrison at Yale University. Despite close familial and professional ties at (and job offers from) Yale, Hooker remained at the University of Pittsburgh from 1919 until the end of his teaching career in 1956, at which point he returned to Yale.
29. See Tryphena Humphrey, "Davenport Hooker: 1887-1965," J. Comp. Neurol. 126 (1966): 1-14+3.
30. Jane M. Oppenheimer, "John Spangler Nicholas, 1865-1963," Biographical Memoirs, Nat. Acad. of Sci. 40 (1969): 239-89+248+262-63.
31. Davenport Hooker, "Early Fetal Activity in Mammals: The Third Harry Burr Ferris Lecture," Yale J. Biol. Med. 8, no. 6 (1936): 579-602+602.
32. Robert Yerkes, Almost Human (New York: Century, 1925), 269
33. Gary D. Hodgen, "Primate Models for Pregnancy Hormone Secretion in Man: Fetal, Maternal, and Placental Factors," in Animal Models for Research on Contraception and Fertility, ed. Nancy J. Alexander (Chicago: Northwestern University, 1978), 431.
34. Hooker, "Early Fetal Activity in Mammals" (n. 19), 590.
35. Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 16), 326-329.
36. Adrianne Noe, "The Human Embryo Collection," in Centennial History of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, vol. 5: The Department of Embryology, ed. Jane Maienschein, Marie Glitz, and Garland E. Allan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 21-61
37. Arthur T. Hertig, John Rock, and Eleanor C. Adams, "A Description of 34 Human Ova within the First 17 Days of Development," Am. J. Anat. 98, no. 3 (1956): 435-494
38. Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Fertility Doctor: John Rock and the Fertility Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
39. Mary Eyman McKinniss, "The Number of Ganglion Cells in the Dorsal Root Ganglia of the Second and Third Cervical Nerves in Human Fetuses of Various Ages," Anat. Rec. 65, no. 3 (1936): 255-59
40. James D. Heard, George G. Burkley, and C. Russell Schaefer, "Electrocardiograms Derived from Eleven Fetuses through the Medium of Direct Leads," Am. Heart J. 11, no. 1 (1936): 41-48.
41. Humphrey, "Davenport Hooker" (n. 17), 7.
42. Davenport Hooker, Evidence of Prenatal Function of the Central Nervous System in Man (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1958), 16
43. Davenport Hooker, A Preliminary Atlas of Early Human Fetal Activity (Pittsburgh: Author, 1939), 7.
44. Heard, Burkley, and Schaefer, A "Electrocardiograms" (n. 24). Davenport Hooker, Fetal Activity Protocols, Hooker-Humphrey Collection, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, Md. For a discussion of psychiatry's biased defnitions and uses of such diagnoses in relation to legal, therapeutic abortion decisions in the frst half of the twentieth century
45. see Rickie Solinger, "'A Complete Disaster': Abortion and the Politics of Hospital Abortion Committees, 1950-1970," Feminist Stud. 19, no. 2 (1993): 241-268.
46. Davenport Hooker, "Fetal Refexes and Instinctual Processes," Psychosom. Med. 4 (1942): 199-205, 200. Little exists in the Hooker-Humphrey Collection to further elucidate how or by whom decisions were made on whether to abort or which technique would be used (see the "Subsequent Biomedical Ethics" section). I found only one recorded instance of a coincident sterilization with abortion surgery, which did not clarify who requested the procedure or if maternal consent was obtained. Tryphena Humphrey, Fetal Activity Protocols, Hooker-Humphrey Collection, box HHR 11. By the early twentieth century, hospital births and physician interventions were common not just for poor women, but also for middle- and upper-class women. For an explanation of this historical shift in childbirth practices.
47. see Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989), 132-135. Carolyn Leonard Carson's account of maternity care in the early twentieth century, and specifcally at Magee, provides a very general background on the women and relatively high quality of medical treatment at the hospital during this period
48. see "Maternity Care in the Progressive Era: The Elizabeth Steel Magee Hospital, Parts I and II," Western Pennsylvania Hist. 77, no. 3 (1994): 117-179.
49. Hooker, "Early Fetal Activity in Mammals" (n. 19), 593.
50. Tryphena Humphrey, "Human Prenatal Activity Sequences in the Facial Region and their Relationship to Postnatal Development," Proc. Amer. Speech Hearing Assoc. Conference 6 (1971): 19-126+19.
51. Davenport Hooker, "Notes from Physiological and Morphological Studies of Human Prenatal Development," Hooker-Humphrey Collection, box HHR 04.
52. Davenport Hooker, The Prenatal Origin of Behavior (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1952), 76-77.
53. A small portion of these fetal activity flms was digitally copied from originals at the National Museum of Health and Medicine and is currently viewable online. This digitization was done under the museum's collaboration with Louisiana State University, the Virtual Human Embryo Project. See http://virtualhumanembryo.lsuhsc.edu/videos/Fetal_activ-ity_index.html.
54. Hooker used an esthiometer to test the strength of hairs used in the study, preferring "softer" hairs, sometimes tipped with a bead of rubber cement, because they would not puncture skin or directly stimulate muscles
55. Humphrey, "Human Prenatal Activity Sequences" (n. 33), 19.
56. Hooker, "Fetal Refexes and Instinctual Processes" (n. 30), 201.
57. Hooker, Prenatal Origin of Behavior (n. 35), 57.
58. Davenport Hooker, "Development Reaction to Environment," Yale J. Biol. Med. 32 (1960): 431-440, quotation on 431.
59. Hooker, Prenatal Origin of Behavior (n. 35), 65.
60. This work was started at the University of Pittsburgh by a former colleague of George Ellett Coghill, Ira D. Hogg, Ph.D., in 1932, but continued by Humphrey until her death in 1971. Though her role in the overall project was unmistakably prodigious and deserves more attention than I provide, the focus here is specifcally on Hooker's flming and flms of live fetuses. The few details that do exist on Humphrey unfortunately appear only as side notes within biographies of her two main colleagues. Humphrey was a previous student of, and would later collaborate as regular coauthor with, her life partner, renowned neuro-anatomist Elizabeth Crosby at the University of Michigan. A photograph of Humphrey in front of one of her amazingly detailed medical illustrations, drawn ambidextrously in colored chalk during classes, is shown in
61. Jenelle Pifer, "The Great Equalizer," PITMED 14, no. 2 (2012): 27-31, on page 29.
62. See also Whitley Hill, "Quiet Pioneer: Part II," Med. Michigan 10, no. 2 (2008): 14-15.
63. Humphrey, "Human Prenatal Activity Sequences" (n. 33), 19.
64. Hooker, A "Development Reaction to Environment" (n. 42), 434. See note 38.
65. Davenport Hooker, Early Human Fetal Activity (University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, 1952)
66. Hooker, A, Preliminary Atlas (n. 26).
67. To name a few of the many, Arnold Gesell, "Human Infancy and the Ontogenesis of Behavior," Amer. Scientist 37, no. 4 (1949): 529-553
68. Viktor Hamburger, "Some Aspects of the Embryology of Behavior," Quart. Rev. Biol. 38, no. 4 (1963): 342-365
69. Stephan Juan, The Odd Body: Mysteries of Our Weird and Wonderful Bodies Explained (Kansas City: Andrews McMeel, 2004)
70. Alessandra Piontelli, From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study (London: Psychology Press, 2012); and other works referenced in this article.
71. "Philosophical Group Gives $19,200 Grants; 19 Research Awards Revealed in Advance of Society's Meeting in Philadelphia," New York Times, April 18, 1937, 12.
72. "Scientifc Events," Science 85, no. 2207 (1937): 378.
73. "Cinema: Embryonic Grasp," Time, May 2, 1938.
74. "Science: Beginnings of the Mind," Time, January 8, 1945.
75. Barbara Duden, "The Fetus on the 'Farther Shore': Toward a History of the Unborn," in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 4), 13-25+18-22.
76. See Addelson, A "Emergence of the Fetus" (n. 4), 26-42, for an approach to the role of a fetus through its relationships to people and not as a person per se, analogous to inanimate objects as characters in a play.
77. See, for example, George L. Streeter, "Developmental Horizons in Human Embryos: Description of Age Group XI, 13 to 20 Somites, and Age Group XII, 21 to 29 Somites," Con-trib. Embryol. (Carnegie Inst.) 30 (1942): 211-235. Inconsistent age estimation had constituted a major complication in embryology since the early nineteenth century. For a detailed history of stage standardizations in embryology
78. see Nick Hopwood, "Visual Standards and Disciplinary Change: Normal Plates, Stages and Tables in Embryology," Hist. Sci. 43, no. 3 (2006): 239-303.
79. Nick Hopwood, "Producing Development: The Anatomy of Human Embryos and the Norms of Wilhelm His," Bull. Hist. Med. 74 (2000): 29-79+78-79.
80. Geraldine Lux Flanagan, The First Nine Months of Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1962).
81. Geraldine Lux Flanagan, "Dramatic Photographs of Babies before Birth," Look, June 5, 1962, 19-23. Only pages 22 and 23 contain images from Hooker's study.
82. See, for example, Christa Einspieler and Heinz F. R. Prechtl, "Fetal Movements: Though They May Be Spontaneous, Yet There Is Method in Them," in Fetal MRI, ed. Daniela Prayer (New York: Springer, 2011), 177-90+178.
83. Flanagan, A Dramatic Photographs (n. 57), 22.
84. Ibid., 23.
85. Ibid., 23.
86. Petchesky, "Fetal Images" (n. 4)
87. Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev. 37, no. 1 (1993): 43-58.
88. Lennart Nilsson, "Drama of Life Before Birth," Life 58, no. 17 (1965): 54-71
89. Lennart Nilsson and Axel Ingelman-Sundberg, A Child Is Born (University of Michigan: Delacorte Press, 1967).
90. Petchesky, "Fetal Images" (n. 4), 269-270
91. Cole, "Sex and Death on Display" (n. 62)
92. and as portrayed by the "Star Child" of the 1968 Stanley Kubrick flm 2001: A Space Odyssey.
93. The topic of this article is not the fetus qua patient-the fetuses in this project were not the subjects of medical interventions performed on behalf of the fetus. The phenomenon is introduced here to provide the greater context in which Hooker's fetal images were later displayed and interpreted. Casper, Making of the Unborn Patient (n. 4)
94. Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientifc Construction of Fetal Person-hood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins, 1991), 190-205+192.
95. Richard Beard and Peter W. Nathanielsz, Fetal Physiology and Medicine: Basis of Perina-tology (New York: M. Dekker, 1984).
96. Meredith W. Michaels and Lynn M. Morgan, "Introduction: The Fetal Imperative," in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 4), 1-9+4.
97. Casper, Making of the Unborn Patient (n. 4), 31-34.
98. Monica J. Casper, "Operation to the Rescue: Feminist Encounters with Fetal Surgery," in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 4), 101-112+105.
99. For example, Robert C. Goodlin, "Cutaneous Respiration in a Fetal Incubator." Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 86 (1963): 571-579
100. Geoffrey Chamberlain, "An Artifcial Placenta," Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 100 (1968): 624.
101. Eva R. Rubin, The Abortion Controversy: A Documentary History (Michigan: Greenwood, 1994), 14.
102. Moore J. G and J. H. Randall, "Trends in Therapeutic Abortion: A Review of 137 Cases," Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 63, no. 1 (1952): 28-40.
103. Solinger, Abortion Wars (n. 4), 15-32.
104. Edwin M. Gold, Carl L. Erdhardt, Harold Jacobziner, and Frieda G. Nelson, "Therapeutic Abortions in New York City: A 20-Year Review," Am J. Pub. Health 55, no. 7 (1965): 964-971+969.
105. Solinger, "'A Complete Disaster'" (n. 29), 248-249.
106. Carole J. Doctors of Conscience: The Struggle to Provide Abortion Before and After Roe v. (Boston: Beacon, 1996), for a discussion of the complex politics within the medical field surrounding hospital abortion boards and the efforts of some reputable gynecologists to circumvent them in the interests of patients who had been denied therapeutic abortions.
107. "Roe v. Wade: Brief for Appellee" (U.S. Supreme Court, 1971), no. 70-18.
108. Nicholas P. Terry, "'Alas! Poor Yorick,' I Knew Him Ex Utero: The Regulation of Embryo and Fetal Experimentation and Disposal in England and the United States," Vanderbilt Law Rev. 39, no. 3 (1986): 419-70+422
109. Lori B. Andrews, "State Regulation of Embryo Research," Nat. Inst. Health, Papers Commissioned Hum. Embryo Res. Panel 2 (1994): 297-407+299.
110. Victor Cohn, "Live-Fetus Research Debated," Washington Post, April 10, 1973, A1-A9
111. Victor Cohn, "NIH Vows Not to Fund Fetus Work," Washington Post, April 13, 1973, A1-A8
112. Victor Cohn, "Scientists and Fetal Research," Washington Post, April 15, 1973, A1.
113. Terry, "'Alas! Poor Yorick'" (n. 78), 422
114. see also Dubow, Ourselves Unborn (n. 4), 76-79, for a discussion of the growing distrust of and resistance to unregulated medical experimentation on humans, particularly the events occurring in reaction to Roe v. Wade that brought concerns over fetal research into the public domain.
115. Ramsey, Ethics of Fetal Research (n. 4), 62. Ramsey identifes analogous topics in medical ethics concerning research on humans that did already exist: research on the dying, the unconscious, and the condemned (28-29).
116. From 1932 to 1972 the Public Health Service had deliberately excluded around four hundred black men, without their consent, from syphilis treatment in order to study the disease. After this experiment was publicly exposed, an advisory panel recommended the establishment of a review board to regulate all federally funded research on humans.
117. See Albert R. Jonsen, "The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects: A Short Story," in Sourcebook in Bioethics: A Documentary History, ed. Albert R. Jonsen, Robert M. Veatch, and LeRoy Walters (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1998), 5-10,
118. James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (New York: Free Press, 1993).
119. For example, Goodlin, "Cutaneous Respiration" (n. 70).
120. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offce, 1975), 69.
121. Hooker, "Fetal Refexes and Instinctual Processes" (n. 30), 200.
122. Gold, et al., "Therapeutic Abortions in New York City" (n. 74), 968
123. Moore and Randall, "Trends in Therapeutic Abortion" (n. 72), 36.
124. Humphrey, "Davenport Hooker" (n. 17), 5.
125. George L. Streeter, "The Development of the Venous Sinuses of the Dura Mater in the Human Embryo," Am. J. Anat. 18, no. 2 (1915): 145-78+157
126. Bradley M. Patten, Human Acquisition Note Cards, Patten-Burdi Collection, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, Md., box PBN 9.1
127. Charles E. Tobin, "A Radiopaque-Plastic Injection Mass," Anat. Rec. 98, no. 2 (1947): 137-145.
128. See Marsh and Ronner, Fertility Doctor (n. 23).
129. Arthur T. Hertig, "A Fifteen-Year Search for First-Stage Human Ova," JAMA 261, no. 3 (1989): 434-435, quotation on 434.
130. Morgan, Icons of Life (n. 4), 201.
131. Humphrey, "Davenport Hooker" (n. 17), 7.
132. Ibid., 9.
133. Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and "The Problem of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
134. John C. Donaldson, "Davenport Hooker, 1887-1965," Anat. Rec. 155, no. 3 (1965): 408-410.
135. Davenport Hooker, "Notes from Physiological and Morphological Studies" (n. 34).
136. Humphrey, "Davenport Hooker" (n. 17), 7.
137. Hertig, "A Fifteen-Year Search" (n. 90), 435. These assertions were made in the 1980s-decades after the original research and within a much different social climate
138. see Marsh A and Ronner, A Fertility Doctor [n. 23], 104 but in earlier papers Hertig and his colleagues similarly clarifed fetal sources as "hysterectomy salpingectomy. for various therapeutic reasons
139. Hertig, Rock, and Adams, "Description of 34 Human Ova" (n. 23), 435.
140. Annemarie Jutel, "What's in a Name? Death before Birth," Perspect. Biol. Med. 49, no. 3 (2006): 425-34+429. All terminology surrounding fetal termination has its own complex assumptions, values, purposes, and conditions; I refer only to the established use of "abortion" within medical contexts. Correspondingly, "abortus" was previously a more common word for the products of abortion at any stage, though Hooker never applied the term himself (see its use in note 50).
141. Hooker, "Early Fetal Activity in Mammals" (n. 19), 601.
142. For an investigation of how medical research contributed to the classifcation of human fetuses as medical waste, see Lynn M. Morgan,"'Properly Disposed Of': A History of Embryo Disposal and the Changing Claims on Fetal Remains," Med. Anthropol. 21 (2002): 247-274.
143. Hooker, "Early Fetal Activity in Mammals" (n. 19), 590.
144. George W. Corner produced an engagingly informative account of his long career in embryology, exemplary of the thought processes and interpersonal relationships behind many experimental methods in the reproductive sciences in the twentieth century, in Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981).
145. Michael E. Lynch describes the laboratory ritual that transforms an animal into a research object, commonly, but not exclusively, through "sacrifce," and often in order to generate graphic data and demonstrations. See "Sacrifce and the Transformation of the Animal Body into a Scientifc Object: Laboratory Culture and Ritual Practice in the Neuro-sciences," Soc. Stud. Sci. 18 (1988): 265-289.
146. Ibid., 282.
147. Curtis, "'Tangible as Tissue'" (n. 13), 429-430.
148. Arnold Gesell and Catherine Strunk Amatruda, The Embryology of Behavior: The Beginnings of the Human Mind (Oxford: Harper, 1945).
149. "Science: Beginnings of the Mind" (n. 51).
150. Davenport Hooker, Human Fetal Activity Protocols, Hooker-Humphrey Collection, boxes HHR 01 and HHR 07.
151. Joseph Bolivar de Lee, Obstetrics for Nurses (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1917), 220-221
152. Catholic Hospital Association of the United States and Canada, Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Hospitals (St. Louis: Catholic Hospital Association of the United States and Canada, 1949), 3
153. Stewart M. Brooks, Review of Nursing: Essentials for State Boards (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 109.
154. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd ed. (1256).
155. Flanagan, First Nine Months of Life (n. 56), 75.
156. Holly M. Cintas, "Fetal Movements: An Overview," Phys. Occup. Ther. Pediatr. 73, no. 3 (1987): 1-15, 4
157. Einspieler and Prechtl, "Fetal Movements" (n. 58), 178.